Introduction

1.Characteristics of classicism

2. Basics of classicism and its meaning

3. Features of classicism in Russia and its supporters

3.1 Kantemirov A.D.

3.2 Trediakovsky V.K.

3.3 Lomonosov M.V.

4. Russian classicism as a literary movement

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

From the Latin classicus - exemplary. A style or trend in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which turned to the ancient heritage as a norm and an ideal model. Classicism took shape in the 17th century. in France. In the 18th century classicism was associated with the Enlightenment; based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the rational laws of the world, about the beautiful ennobled nature, he strove to express a great social content, lofty heroic and moral ideals, to a strict organization of logical, clear and harmonious images.

According to the lofty ethical ideas, the educational program of art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; historical, mythological, religious painting, etc.) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable; genre painting and etc.). In literature (the tragedies of P. Corneille, J. Racine, Voltaire, the comedies of Molière, the poem " poetic art"and satires by N. Boileau, fables by J. La Fontaine, prose by F. La Rochefoucauld, J. La Bruyère in France, creativity Weimar period I.V. Goethe and F. Schiller in Germany, odes to M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin, the tragedy of A.P. Sumarokov and Ya.B. Knyazhnina in Russia), the leading role is played by significant ethical conflicts, normative typified images. For theatrical art[Mondory, T. Duparc, M. Chanmele, A.L. Lequin, F.J. Talma, Rachel in France, F.K. Neuber in Germany, F.G. Volkov, I.A. Dmitrevsky in Russia] are characterized by a solemn, static structure of performances, measured reading of poetry. AT musical theater heroics, elation of style, logical clarity of dramaturgy, dominance of recitative (J.B. Lully's operas in France) or vocal virtuosity in arias (Italian opera series) were established, noble simplicity and elevation (reformist operas by K.V. Gluck in Austria). Classicism in architecture (J. Hardouin - mansart, J.A. Gabriel, K.N. Ledoux in France, K. Ren in England, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, A.N. Voronikhin, A.D. Zakharov, K.I. Rossi in Russia) inherent clarity and geometrism of forms, rational clarity of planning, combinations of smooth walls With warrant and discreet decor. Fine arts (painters N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, J.L. David, J.O.D. Ingres, sculptors J.B. Pigalle, E.M. Falcone in France, I.G. Shadov in Germany, B Thorvaldsen in Denmark, A. Canova in Italy, painters A.P. Losenko, G.I. Ugryumov, sculptors M.P. Matros in Russia) are distinguished by the logical unfolding of the plot, the strict balance of the composition, the plastic clarity of forms, the clear harmony of linear rhythms .

1.Characteristics of classicism

This direction is characterized by a high civic theme, strict observance of certain creative norms and rules. Classicism, as a certain artistic direction, tends to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards a certain “norm”, a model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of modern and harmonic art. According to the rules of classicism aesthetics, which strictly adheres to the so-called "hierarchy of genres", tragedy, ode and epic belonged to the "high genres", and had to develop especially important problems, resorting to ancient and historical plots, and display only the sublime, heroic sides of life. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, fable, satire and others, designed to reflect modern reality.

Each genre had its own theme (selection of topics), and each work was built according to the rules developed for this. Mix in the work the techniques of various literary genres strictly prohibited.

The most developed genres in the period of classicism were tragedies, poems and odes. Tragedy, in the understanding of the classicists, is dramatic work, which depicts a struggle outstanding in its mental strength individuals with insurmountable obstacles; such a struggle usually ends in the death of the hero. The classicist writers put the tragedy at the heart of the collision (conflict) of the hero's personal feelings and aspirations with his duty to the state. This conflict was resolved by the victory of duty. The plots of the tragedy were borrowed from the writers of ancient Greece and Rome, sometimes taken from historical events of the past. Heroes were kings, commanders. As in Greco-Roman tragedy, characters were portrayed as either positive or negative, with each person being the personification of any one spiritual trait, one quality: positive courage, justice, etc., negative - ambition, hypocrisy. These were conditional characters. Also conditionally depicted and life, and the era. Did not have correct image historical reality, nationality (it is not known where and when the action takes place).

The tragedy was supposed to have five acts.

The playwright had to strictly observe the rules of the "three unities": time, place and action. The unity of time required that all the events of the tragedy fit within a period not exceeding one day. The unity of the place was expressed in the fact that the whole action of the play took place in one place - in the palace or on the square. The unity of action presupposed an internal connection of events; nothing superfluous, not necessary for the development of the plot, was allowed in the tragedy. Tragedy had to be written in solemnly majestic verse.

The poem was an epic (narrative) work, setting out in poetic language an important historical event or glorifying the exploits of heroes and kings.

Ode - solemn hymn in honor of kings, commanders or victory over enemies. The ode was supposed to express the delight, inspiration of the author (pathos). Therefore, she had an elevated, solemn language, rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, the personification of abstract concepts (science, victory), images of gods and goddesses and conscious exaggerations. In terms of the ode, “lyrical disorder” was allowed, which was expressed in a deviation from the harmony of the presentation of the main theme. But it was a conscious, strictly considered digression ("proper mess").

2. Basics of classicism and its meaning

classicism literature style

The doctrine of classicism was based on the idea of ​​the dualism of human nature. In the struggle between the material and the spiritual, the greatness of man was revealed. The personality was affirmed in the fight against "passions", freed from selfish material interests. Reasonable spirituality in a person was considered as the most important quality of personality. The idea of ​​the greatness of reason, which unites people, found expression in the creation of the theory of art by the classicists. In the aesthetics of classicism, it is seen as a way to imitate the essence of things. “Virtue,” Sumarokov wrote, “we owe not to our nature. Morality and politics make us useful to the common good in terms of enlightenment, reason and purification of hearts. And without that, people would have long ago exterminated each other without a trace.

Classicism - urban, metropolitan poetry. There are almost no images of nature in it, and if landscapes are given, then urban ones, pictures of artificial nature are drawn: squares, grottoes, fountains, trimmed trees.

This direction is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it repels the aesthetics that preceded it and opposes the art that actively coexists with it, imbued with the consciousness of general discord generated by the crisis of the ideals of the past era. Continuing some of the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancients, faith in reason, the ideal of harmony and measure), classicism was a kind of antithesis to it; behind the external harmony, it hides the internal antinomy of the worldview, which makes it related to the baroque (for all their deep differences). Generic and individual, public and private, reason and feeling, civilization and nature, which acted (in a trend) in the art of the Renaissance as a single harmonious whole, in classicism are polarized, become mutually exclusive concepts. This reflected a new historical state, when the political and private spheres began to disintegrate, and social relations turned into a separate and abstract force for a person.

For its time, classicism had a positive meaning. Writers proclaimed the importance of a person fulfilling his civic duties, sought to educate a person-citizen; developed the question of genres, their compositions, streamlined the language. Classicism dealt a crushing blow to medieval literature, full of faith in the miraculous, in ghosts, subordinating the consciousness of man to the teachings of the church. Enlightenment classicism was formed earlier than others in foreign literature. In works devoted to the 18th century, this trend is often assessed as the “high” classicism of the 17th century that has fallen into decay. This is not entirely true. Of course, there is a continuity between Enlightenment and "high" classicism, but Enlightenment classicism is an integral artistic direction, revealing the previously unused artistic potential of classic art and possessing enlightening features. The literary doctrine of classicism was associated with advanced philosophical systems representing a reaction to medieval mysticism and scholasticism. These philosophical systems were, in particular, the rationalistic theory of Descartes and the materialistic doctrine of Gassendi. Particularly significant influence on the formation aesthetic principles classicism was provided by the philosophy of Descartes, who declared reason the only criterion of truth. In Descartes' theory, materialistic principles based on data exact sciences, were combined in a peculiar way with idealistic principles, with the assertion of the decisive superiority of the spirit, thinking over matter, being, with the theory of the so-called "innate" ideas. The cult of reason underlies the aesthetics of classicism. Since any feeling in the view of the adherents of the theory of classicism was random and arbitrary, the measure of a person's value was for them the correspondence of his actions to the laws of reason. Above all in man, classicism placed the "reasonable" ability to suppress personal feelings and passions in oneself in the name of one's duty to the state. A person in the works of the followers of classicism is, first of all, a servant of the state, a person in general, for the rejection of inner life personality naturally followed from the principle of subordination of the particular to the general proclaimed by classicism. Classicism depicted not so much people as characters, images-concepts. Typification was carried out because of this in the form of images-masks, which were the embodiment human vices and virtues. Just as abstract was the timeless and spaceless setting in which these images operated. Classicism was ahistorical even in those cases when it turned to the depiction of historical events and historical figures, for writers were not interested in historical authenticity, but in the possibility, through the lips of pseudo-historical heroes, of eternal and general truths, eternal and general properties characters, supposedly inherent in people of all times and peoples.

3. Features of classicism in Russia and its supporters

In Russia, the formation of classicism takes place almost three-quarters of a century later than it took shape in France. For Russian writers, Voltaire, a representative of contemporary French classicism, was no less an authority than such founders of this literary movement as Corneille or Racine.

Russian classicism had many features in common with Western, in particular with French classicism, since it also arose during the period of absolutism, but it was not a simple imitation. Russian classicism originated and developed on an original soil, taking into account the experience that was accumulated earlier by its established and developed Western European classicism. The peculiar features of Russian classicism are as follows: firstly, from the very beginning, Russian classicism has a strong connection with modern reality, which is illuminated in the best works from the point of view of advanced ideas. The second feature of Russian classicism is the diatribe-satirical stream in their work, conditioned by the progressive social ideas of the writers. The presence of satire in the works of Russian classicist writers gives their work a vitally truthful character. Living modernity, Russian reality, Russian people and Russian nature are to a certain extent reflected in their works. The third feature of Russian classicism, due to the ardent patriotism of Russian writers, is their interest in the history of their homeland. All of them study Russian history, write works in national, historical themes. They strive to create fiction and its language on a national basis, give it their own, Russian face, show attention to folk poetry and folk language. Along with the general features inherent in both French and Russian classicism, the latter also has such features that give it character. national identity. For example, this is an increased civic-patriotic pathos, a much more pronounced accusatory-realistic tendency, less alienation from oral folk art. Everyday and solemn cantes of the first decades of the 18th century largely prepared the development of various genres of lyrics of the middle and second half of XVIII centuries.

The main thing in the ideology of classicism is state pathos. The state, created in the first decades of the 18th century, was declared the highest value. The classicists, inspired by the Petrine reforms, believed in the possibility of its further improvement. It seemed to them a rationally arranged social organism, where each estate performs the duties assigned to it. “Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate science,” wrote A.P. Sumarokov. The state pathos of the Russian classicists is a deeply contradictory phenomenon. It reflected progressive tendencies connected with the final centralization of Russia, and at the same time - utopian ideas coming from a clear overestimation of the social possibilities of enlightened absolutism.

Four major literary figures contributed to the approval of classicism: A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumarokov.

3.1 Kantemirov A.D.

He lived in an era when the first foundations of the modern Russian literary language were just being laid; his satires were written according to the syllabic system of versification, which was already outliving at that time, and nevertheless, the name of Cantemir, in the words of Belinsky, "has already survived many ephemeral celebrities, both classical and romantic, and will still outlive many thousands of them," since Cantemir " first in Russia brought poetry to life. "Symphony on the Psalter" - the first printed work of A. Kantemir, but not the first literary work him at all, which is confirmed by an authorized manuscript of a little-known translation of Antiochus Cantemir entitled "Mr. philosopher Constantine Manassis Synopsis historical", dated 1725.

In the “Translation of a certain Italian letter”, made by A. Cantemir only one year later (1726), vernacular is no longer present in the form of random elements, but as a dominant norm, although the language of this translation was also called Cantemir, out of habit, “gloriously -Russian".

The rapid transition from Church Slavonic vocabulary, morphology and syntax to vernacular, as the norm of literary speech, which can be traced in the earliest works of A. Kantemir, reflected the evolution of not only his individual and individual language and style, but also the development of the linguistic consciousness of the era and the formation of Russian literary language in general. By 1726-1728, the work of A. Cantemir on love poems that have not come down to us, about which he later wrote with a feeling of some regret in the second edition of the IV satire, should be attributed. During this period, Antioch Cantemir showed an increased interest in French literature, which is confirmed both by the above-mentioned "Translation of a certain Italian letter" and by Cantemir's notes in his calendar of 1728, from which we learn about the young writer's acquaintance with French satirical magazines. English pattern like "Le Mentor moderne", as well as with the work of Molière ("The Misanthrope") and the comedies of Marivaux. The work of A. Cantemir on the translation into Russian of the four satires of Boileau and the writing of the original poems “On a Quiet Life” and “On Zoila” should also be attributed to the same period.

Early translations by A. Cantemir and his love lyrics were only preparatory stage in the work of the poet, the first test of strength, the development of language and style, manner of presentation, his own way of seeing the world.

Poems from Philosophical Letters

I honor the law here, obeying rights;

However, I am free to live according to my charters:

The spirit is calm, now life goes on without misfortune,

Every day to eradicate my passions

And looking at the limit, so I establish life,

I calmly guide my days to the end.

I don't miss anyone, there is no need for penalties,

I am happy that I shortened the days of my desires.

I now know the perishability of my age,

I don’t want, I’m not afraid, I expect death.

When you have mercy on me irrevocably

Reveal, then I will be completely happy.

From 1729, the period of the poet's creative maturity begins, when he quite consciously focuses his attention almost exclusively on satire:

In a word, in satires I want to grow old,

And I can’t not write: I can’t stand it.

(IV satire, I ed.)

The first satire of Cantemir, “On those who blaspheme the teachings” (“To your own mind”), was a work of great political resonance, since it was directed against ignorance as a specific social and political force, and not an abstract vice; against ignorance "in an embroidered dress", opposing the transformations of Peter I and enlightenment, against the teachings of Copernicus and book printing; the ignorance of the militant and the triumphant; invested with the authority of the state and church authorities.

Pride, laziness, wealth - wisdom has overcome, Ignorance knowledge has already settled in a place; It is proud under the miter, walks in an embroidered dress, It judges behind red cloth, leads regiments.

Contrary to the preface to the satire, in which the author tried to assure the reader that everything in it was “written for fun” and that he, the author, “did not imagine anyone in particular,” Cantemir’s first satire was directed against quite definite and “particular” persons, - these were the enemies of the cause of Peter and the "scientific squad". “The character of the bishop,” Cantemir wrote in one of the notes to the satire, “although the author describes it from an unknown person, it has many similarities with D ***, who in outdoor ceremonies supplied the entire high priesthood office.” Ridiculing in the satire of a churchman, whose entire education is limited to the assimilation of the "Stone of Faith" by Stefan Yavorsky, Kantemir unequivocally pointed to his own ideological position - a supporter of the "scientific squad". The images of churchmen created by Cantemir corresponded to very real prototypes, and yet they were generalizations, they excited minds, reactionary churchmen of new generations continued to recognize themselves in them, when the name of Antiochus Cantemir became the property of history and when the names of Georgy Dashkov and his associates were betrayed complete oblivion.

3.2 Trediakovsky V.K.

If Kantemir gave samples of Russian satire, then Trediakovsky belongs to the first Russian ode, which was published as a separate brochure in 1734 under the title “Ode solemn about the surrender of the city of Gdansk” (Danzig). It sang of the Russian army and Empress Anna Ioannovna. In 1752, in connection with the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of St. Petersburg, the poem "Praise to the Izherskaya land and the reigning city of St. Petersburg" was written. This is one of the first works glorifying the northern capital of Russia.

In addition to victorious and commendable, Trediakovsky also wrote "spiritual" odes, that is, poetic transcriptions ("paraphrases") of biblical psalms. The most successful of them is the paraphrase "The Second Songs of Moses", which began with verses:

Wonmi oh! Sky and river

Let the earth hear the mouth of the verbs:

Like rain, I will flow with a word;

And they will descend like dew to a flower,

My broadcasts are down.

Very heartfelt poems are "Poems of Praise for Russia", in which Trediakovsky finds clear and precise words to convey both his immense admiration for the Fatherland and longing for his native land.

I'll start on the flute, poems are sad,

In vain to Russia through distant countries:

For all day to me her kindness

Mother Russia! my infinite light!

Let me ask your faithful child,

Oh, how red you sit on the throne!

The Russian sky you are the Sun is clear

Golden scepters paint all others,

And precious porphyry, miter;

You decorated your scepter with yourself,

And she honored the crown with a bright lyceum ...

By 1735, the “Epistole from Russian Poetry to Apollinus” (to Apollo) refers, in which the author gives an overview of European literature, Special attention giving antique and French. The latter is represented by the names of Malherbe, Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Boileau, Voltaire. The solemn invitation of "Apollin" to Russia symbolized the familiarization of Russian poetry with the centuries-old European art.

The next step in acquainting the Russian reader with European classicism was the translation of Boileau's treatise The Art of Poetry (from Trediakovsky's The Science of Poetry) and Horace's Epistle to the Pisons. Here are presented not only "exemplary" writers, but also poetic "rules", which, according to firm conviction translator, Russian authors are obliged to follow. Trediakovsky highly appreciated Boileau's treatise, considering it the most perfect guide in the field of artistic creation. “His piitistic science,” he wrote, “seems to be excellent in front of everything, both in the reasoning of the composition of verses and the purity of the language, and in the reasoning ... of the rules proposed in it.”

In 1751 Trediakovsky published his translation of the novel English writer John Barclay "Argenida". The novel was written in Latin and belonged to the number of moral and political works. The choice of Trediakovsky is not accidental, since the problems of Argenida echoed the political tasks facing Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. The novel glorified "enlightened" absolutism and severely condemned any opposition to the supreme power, from religious sects to political movements. These ideas corresponded to the ideology of early Russian classicism. In the preface to the book, Trediakovsky pointed out that the state "rules" set forth in it are useful for Russian society.

In 1766, Trediakovsky published a book called "Tilemakhida, or the Wandering of Tilemakh, the son of Odysseus, described as part of an ironic piima" - a free translation of the novel by the early French educator Fenelon "The Adventures of Telemachus". Fenelon wrote his work in last years reign Louis XIV when France suffered from devastating wars, the result of which was the decline of agriculture and crafts.

The historical and literary significance of the Tilemakhida, however, lies not only in its critical content, but also in the more complex tasks that Trediakovsky set himself as a translator. In essence, it was not about translation in the usual sense of the word, but about a radical reworking of the very genre of the book. On the basis of Fenelon's novel, Trediakovsky created a heroic poem modeled on the Homeric epic and, accordingly to his task, called the book not "The Adventures of Telemachus", but "Tilemachis".

Remaking the novel into a poem, Trediakovsky introduces many things that were not in Fenelon's book. So, the beginning of the poem reproduces the beginning, characteristic of the ancient Greek epic. Here is the famous “I sing”, and the appeal for help to the muse, and summary the content of the work. Fenelon's novel is written in prose, Trediakovsky's poem in hexameter. The style of the Fenelonian novel is just as radically updated. According to A.N. Sokolova, "compressed, strict, stingy with prose embellishments, Fenelon's prose did not meet the stylistic principles of the poetic epic as a high genre ... Trediakovsky poeticizes Fenelon's prose style." To this end, he introduces complex epithets into Tilemakhida, so characteristic of the Homeric epic and completely absent in Fenelon's novel: honey-flowing, multi-jet, sharp-severe, prudent, bleeding. Such compound adjectives in Trediakovsky's poem there are more than a hundred. Following the example of complex epithets, complex nouns are created: translucence, fighting, good neighborliness, splendor.

Trediakovsky carefully preserved the enlightening pathos of Fenelon's novel. If in the Argenides it was about the justification of absolutism, which suppresses all kinds of disobedience, then in the Tilemakhis the supreme power becomes the subject of condemnation. It speaks of the despotism of rulers, their addiction to luxury and bliss, the inability of kings to distinguish virtuous people from greed and money-grubbers, flatterers who surround the throne and prevent monarchs from seeing the truth.

I asked him, what does tsarist sovereignty consist in?

He answered: the king is powerful in everything over the people,

But the laws over him in everything are powerful, of course.

"Tilemakhida" caused a different attitude towards itself both among contemporaries and descendants. In Tilemakhida, Trediakovsky clearly demonstrated the variety of possibilities of the hexameter as an epic verse. Trediakovsky's experience was later used by N.I. Gnedich when translating the Iliad and V.A. Zhukovsky at work on the Odyssey.

3.3 Lomonosov M.V.

Lomonosov's first work dealing with problems of language was the Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry (1739, published in 1778), written back in Germany, where he substantiates the applicability of syllabo-tonic versification to the Russian language. According to Lomonosov, each literary genre should be written in a certain “calm”: “high calm” is “required” for heroic poems, odes, “prosaic speeches about important matters”; middle - for poetic messages, elegies, satires, descriptive prose, etc .; low - for comedies, epigrams, songs, "writings of ordinary affairs." "Shtils" were ordered, first of all, in the field of vocabulary, depending on the ratio of neutral (common for Russian and Church Slavonic languages), Church Slavonic and Russian colloquial words. "High calm" is characterized by a combination of Slavic words with neutral words, "middle calm" is built on the basis of neutral vocabulary with the addition of a certain number of Slavic words and colloquial words, "low calm" combines neutral and colloquial words. Such a program made it possible to overcome the Russian-Church Slavonic diglossia, which was still noticeable in the first half of the 18th century, and to create a single stylistically differentiated literary language. The theory of "three calms" had a significant impact on the development of the Russian literary language in the second half of the 18th century. up to the activities of the school N.M. Karamzin (since the 1790s), who headed for the convergence of the Russian literary language with the spoken language.

Lomonosov's poetic heritage includes solemn odes, philosophical ode-reflections "Morning reflection on God's majesty" (1743) and "Evening reflection on God's majesty" (1743), poetic transcriptions of psalms and the adjoining Ode chosen from Job (1751) , the unfinished heroic poem Peter the Great (1756–1761), satirical poems (Hymn to the Beard, 1756–1757, etc.), the philosophical “Conversation with Anacreon” (translation of the Anacreontic odes in conjunction with their own responses to them; 1757–1761), heroic idyll Polydor (1750), two tragedies, numerous poems on the occasion of various festivities, epigrams, parables, translated poems.

The pinnacle of Lomonosov's poetic work is his odes, written "on occasion" - in connection with significant events in the life of the state, for example, the accession to the throne of Empresses Elizabeth and Catherine II. Lomonosov used solemn occasions to create vivid and majestic pictures of the universe. The odes are replete with metaphors, hyperbole, allegories, rhetorical questions, and other tropes that create internal dynamics and sound richness of the verse, imbued with patriotic pathos, reflections on the future of Russia. In the Ode on the day of the accession to the All-Russian throne of Elizabeth Petrovna (1747), he wrote:

The sciences feed young men,

They give joy to the old,

AT happy life decorate,

Save in case of an accident.

Classicism marked an important stage in the development of Russian literature. At the time of the establishment of this literary trend, the historical task of transforming versification was solved. At the same time, a solid foundation was laid for the formation of the Russian literary language, eliminating the contradiction between the new content and the old forms of its expression, which was revealed with all its sharpness in the literature of the first three decades of the 18th century.

4. Russian classicism as literary direction

As a literary trend, Russian classicism was distinguished by its internal complexity, heterogeneity, due to the difference in the ideological and literary and artistic features of the work of its founders. The leading genres that were developed by the representatives of classicism during the period of establishment of this literary trend were, on the one hand, ode and tragedy, which propagated the ideals of enlightened absolutism in positive images, and, on the other hand, satirical genres that fought against political reaction, against the enemies of enlightenment, against social vices and etc.

Russian classicism did not shy away from national folklore. On the contrary, in the perception of the folk tradition poetic culture in certain genres he found incentives to enrich himself. Even at the origins of the new direction, undertaking the reform of Russian versification, Trediakovsky directly refers to the songs common people as the model he followed in establishing his rules.

In the purely artistic realm, the Russian classicists faced such difficult tasks that their European counterparts did not know. French literature of the middle of the 17th century. already had a well-crafted literary language and developed over a long period of time secular genres. Russian literature at the beginning of the 18th century. had neither one nor the other. Therefore, the share of Russian writers of the second third of the XVIII century. the task was not only to create a new literary trend. They were supposed to reform the literary language, master genres unknown in Russia until that time. Each of them was a pioneer. Kantemir laid the foundation for Russian satire, Lomonosov legitimized the ode genre, Sumarokov acted as the author of tragedies and comedies. In the field of literary language reform, the main role belonged to Lomonosov.

The creative activity of Russian classicists was accompanied and supported by numerous theoretical works in the field of genres, literary language and versification. Trediakovsky wrote a treatise entitled "A New and Short Way to Add Russian Poetry", in which he substantiated the basic principles of a new, syllabic-tonic system. Lomonosov, in his discussion "On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language," carried out a reform of the literary language and proposed the doctrine of the "three calms." Sumarokov in his treatise "Instruction to those who want to be writers" gave a description of the content and style of classic genres.

Russian classicism of the 18th century. went through two stages in its development. The first of them refers to the 30-50s. This is the formation of a new direction, when genres unknown until that time in Russia are born one after another, the literary language and versification are being reformed. The second stage falls on the last four decades of the 18th century. and is associated with the names of such writers as Fonvizin, Kheraskov, Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Kapnist. In their work, Russian classicism most fully and widely revealed its ideological and artistic possibilities.

The originality of Russian classicism lies in the fact that in the era of its formation it combined the pathos of serving the absolutist state with the ideas of the early European Enlightenment. In France XVII 1st century absolutism had already exhausted its progressive possibilities, and society was facing a bourgeois revolution, which was ideologically prepared by the French enlighteners. In Russia in the first decades of the XVIII century. absolutism was still at the head of progressive transformations for the country. Therefore, at the first stage of its development, Russian classicism adopted from the Enlightenment some of its social doctrines. These include primarily the idea of ​​enlightened absolutism. According to this theory, the state should be headed by a wise, “enlightened” monarch, who in his ideas stands above the selfish interests of individual estates and requires each of them to serve honestly for the benefit of the whole society. An example of such a ruler was for the Russian classicists Peter I, a unique person in terms of mind, energy and broad state outlook.

In contrast to the French classicism of the XVII century. and in direct accordance with the Age of Enlightenment in Russian classicism of the 30-50s, a huge place was given to the sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. The country has made the transition from church ideology to secular. Russia needed accurate, useful knowledge for society. Lomonosov spoke about the benefits of the sciences in almost all of his odes. The first satire of Kantemir “To your mind. On those who blaspheme the teaching." The very word "enlightened" meant not only educated person, but a person-citizen, to whom knowledge helped to realize his responsibility to society. "Ignorance" meant not only a lack of knowledge, but at the same time a lack of understanding of one's duty to the state. In the Western European educational literature of the 18th century, especially at the late stage of its development, "enlightenment" was determined by the degree of opposition to the existing order. In Russian classicism of the 30s-50s, "enlightenment" was measured by the measure of civil service to the absolutist state. The Russian classicists - Kantemir, Lomonosov, Sumarokov - were close to the struggle of the enlighteners against the church and church ideology. But if in the West it was about protecting the principle of religious tolerance, and in some cases atheism, then Russian enlighteners in the first half of the 18th century. denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science and its adherents from persecution by church authorities. The first Russian classicists already knew the enlightening idea of ​​the natural equality of people. “The flesh in your servant is one-sided,” Cantemir pointed out to a nobleman who was beating a valet. Sumarokov reminded the “noble” class that “born from women and from ladies / Without exception, all forefather Adam.” But this thesis at that time was not yet embodied in the demand for the equality of all classes before the law. Cantemir, based on the principles of "natural law", called on the nobles to humane treatment of the peasants. Sumarokov, pointing to the natural equality of nobles and peasants, demanded from the "first" members of the fatherland of education and service to confirm their "nobility" and command position in the country.

If in Western European versions of classicism, and especially in the system of genres of French classicism, the dominant place belonged to the dramatic genre - tragedy and comedy, then in Russian classicism the genre dominant shifts to the area of ​​lyricism and satire.

Common genres with French classicism: tragedy, comedy, idyll, elegy , ode, sonnet, epigram, satire.

Conclusion

At the beginning of the 19th century, outstanding supporters of classicism still lived and wrote: M.M. Kheraskov (1733-1807) and Derzhavin (1743-1816). But their work, which has undergone a complex stylistic evolution, gradually declined.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russian classicism as a literary movement was losing its former progressive features: civic enlightenment pathos, the affirmation of the human mind, a speech against religious ascetic scholasticism, a critical attitude towards monarchical despotism and the abuses of serfdom. But, nevertheless, the progressive traditions of classicism have been preserved in Russian literature for a long time in the works of leading writers. More and more, classicism became the arena of epigonism. However, the officially supported and promoted classicist direction, by inertia, still enjoyed great attention.

Bibliography

1.G.N. Pospelov, Problems of the historical development of literature. M., Education, 1972, p. 66.

2. Moiseeva G.N., Lomonosov and ancient Russian literature../ G.N. Moiseev. - L., Nauka, 1971, p. 9.

3. Russian literature of the XVIII century.- L., 1937, p.169

4. Kravchenko A.I. Culturology: Textbook for universities. - M., Academic project, 2001.

5.Culture of the New Time. Classicism // Electronic publication

http://afuvietnam.com/map192 This direction is characterized by high civic topics, strict observance of certain creative norms and rules. Classicism, as a certain artistic direction, tends to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards a certain “norm”, a model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of modern and harmonic art. According to the rules of classicism aesthetics, which strictly adheres to the so-called "hierarchy of genres", tragedy, ode and epic belonged to the "high genres", and had to develop especially important problems, resorting to ancient and historical plots, and display only the sublime, heroic sides of life. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, fable, satire and others, designed to reflect modern reality.

Each genre had its own theme (selection of topics), and each work was built according to the rules developed for this. It was strictly forbidden to mix the techniques of various literary genres in the work.

The most developed genres in the period of classicism were tragedies, poems and odes.

Tragedy, in the understanding of the classicists, is such a dramatic work, which depicts the struggle of a person outstanding in his spiritual strength with insurmountable obstacles; such a struggle usually ends in the death of the hero. The classicist writers put the tragedy at the heart of the collision (conflict) of the hero's personal feelings and aspirations with his duty to the state. This conflict was resolved by the victory of duty. The plots of the tragedy were borrowed from the writers of ancient Greece and Rome, sometimes taken from the historical events of the past. Heroes were kings, commanders. As in Greco-Roman tragedy, the characters were portrayed as either positive or negative, and each person was the personification of any one spiritual trait, one quality: positive courage, justice, etc. , negative - ambition, hypocrisy. These were conditional characters. Also conditionally depicted and life, and the era. There was no true image of historical reality, nationality (it is not known where and when the action takes place).

http://nth.ac.th/map441 The tragedy was supposed to have five acts.

The playwright had to strictly observe the rules of the "three unities": time, place and action. The unity of time required that all the events of the tragedy fit within a period not exceeding one day. The unity of the place was expressed in the fact that the whole action of the play took place in one place - in the palace or on the square. The unity of action presupposed an internal connection of events; nothing superfluous, not necessary for the development of the plot, was allowed in the tragedy. Tragedy had to be written in solemnly majestic verse.

The poem was an epic (narrative) work, setting out in poetic language an important historical event or glorifying the exploits of heroes and kings.

Ode is a solemn song of praise in honor of kings, generals or a victory won over enemies. The ode was supposed to express the delight, inspiration of the author (pathos). Therefore, it was characterized by an elevated, solemn language, rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, the personification of abstract concepts (science, victory), images of gods and goddesses, and conscious exaggerations. In terms of the ode, “lyrical disorder” was allowed, which was expressed in a deviation from the harmony of the presentation of the main theme. But it was a conscious, strictly considered digression ("proper mess").

The doctrine of classicism was based on the idea of ​​the dualism of human nature. In the struggle between the material and the spiritual, the greatness of man was revealed. The personality was affirmed in the fight against "passions", freed from selfish material interests. The rational, spiritual principle in a person was considered as the most important quality of a person. The idea of ​​the greatness of reason, which unites people, found expression in the creation of the theory of art by the classicists. In the aesthetics of classicism, it is seen as a way to imitate the essence of things. “Virtue,” Sumarokov wrote, “we owe not to our nature. Morality and politics make us useful to the common good in terms of enlightenment, reason and purification of hearts. And without that, people would have long ago exterminated each other without a trace.

Classicism - urban, metropolitan poetry. There are almost no images of nature in it, and if landscapes are given, then urban ones, pictures of artificial nature are drawn: squares, grottoes, fountains, trimmed trees.

This direction is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it repels the aesthetics of the Renaissance that preceded it and opposes the Baroque art that actively coexists with it, imbued with a consciousness of general discord generated by the crisis of the ideals of the past era. Continuing some of the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancients, faith in reason, the ideal of harmony and measure), classicism was a kind of antithesis to it; behind the external harmony, it hides the internal antinomy of the worldview, which makes it related to the baroque (for all their deep differences). Generic and individual, public and private, reason and feeling, civilization and nature, which acted (in a trend) in the art of the Renaissance as a single harmonious whole, in classicism are polarized, become mutually exclusive concepts. This reflected a new historical state, when the political and private spheres began to disintegrate, and social relations turned into a separate and abstract force for a person.

For its time, classicism had a positive meaning. Writers proclaimed the importance of a person fulfilling his civic duties, sought to educate a person-citizen; developed the question of genres, their compositions, streamlined the language. Classicism dealt a crushing blow to medieval literature, full of faith in the miraculous, in ghosts, subordinating human consciousness to the teachings of the church.

Enlightenment classicism was formed earlier than others in foreign literature. In works devoted to XVIII century, then the direction is often assessed as the “high” classicism of the 17th century that has fallen into decay. This is not entirely true. Of course, there is a succession between Enlightenment and "high" classicism, but Enlightenment classicism is an integral artistic movement that reveals the previously unused artistic potential of classic art and has enlightening features.

The literary doctrine of classicism was associated with advanced philosophical systems, representing a reaction to medieval mysticism and scholasticism. These philosophical systems were, in particular, the rationalistic theory of Descartes and the materialistic doctrine of Gassendi. The philosophy of Descartes, who declared reason the only criterion of truth, had a particularly great influence on the formation of the aesthetic principles of classicism. In the theory of Descartes, the materialistic principles, based on the data of the exact sciences, were combined in a peculiar way with the idealistic principles, with the assertion of the decisive superiority of the spirit, thinking over matter, being, with the theory of the so-called "innate" ideas.

The cult of reason underlies the aesthetics of classicism. Since any feeling in the view of the adherents of the theory of classicism was random and arbitrary, the measure of a person's value was for them the correspondence of his actions to the laws of reason. Above all in man, classicism placed the "reasonable" ability to suppress personal feelings and passions in oneself in the name of one's duty to the state. A person in the works of the followers of classicism is, first of all, a servant of the state, a person in general, because the rejection of the inner life of the individual naturally followed from the principle of subordination of the particular to the general proclaimed by classicism. Classicism depicted not so much people as characters, images-concepts. Typification was carried out because of this in the form of images-masks, which were the embodiment of human vices and virtues. Just as abstract was the timeless and spaceless setting in which these images operated. Classicism was ahistorical even in those cases when it turned to the depiction of historical events and historical figures, for writers were not interested in historical authenticity, but in the possibility through the lips of pseudo-historical heroes of eternal and general truths, eternal and general properties of characters, allegedly inherent in people of all times and peoples.

The theorist of French classicism, Nicolas Boileau, in his treatise The Art of Poetry (1674), outlined the principles of classicist poetics in literature as follows:

But Malherbe came and showed the French

A simple and harmonious verse, pleasing to the muses in everything,

He commanded harmony to fall at the feet of reason

And by placing the words, he doubled their power.

Having cleansed our tongue of rudeness and filth,

He formed a demanding and faithful taste,

The lightness of the verse was closely followed

And the line break was strictly prohibited.

Boileau argued that everything in a literary work should be based on reason, on deeply thought-out principles and rules.

In the theory of classicism, in its own way, the desire to life truth. Boileau declared: “Only the truthful is beautiful” and called for the imitation of nature. However, both Boileau himself and most of the writers who united under the banner of classicism invested in the concepts of “truthful” and “nature” a limited meaning, due to the socio-historical essence of this literary movement. Calling to imitate nature, Boileau had in mind not any nature, but only “beautiful nature”, which in fact led to the depiction of reality, but embellished, “ennobled”. The poetic code of Boileau protected literature from the penetration of the democratic stream into it. And it is quite characteristic that for all his friendship with Moliere, Boileau condemned him for the fact that he often deviated from the aesthetic requirements of classicism and followed artistic experience folk theater. The highest authorities in matters of poetic art, who gave eternal and unnamed solutions to ideological and artistic problems, classicism recognized the ancient - Greek and Roman - classics, declaring their works "models" for imitation. The poetics of classicism largely relied on the mechanical and historically assimilated rules of ancient poetics (Aristotle and Horace). In particular, the rules of the so-called three unities (time, place and action), which are obligatory for the playwright of the school of classicism, go back to the ancient tradition.

Alexander Pope (1688-1744) is the most significant representative of the English representational classicist poetry.

In An Essay on Criticism (1711), relying on Boileau's Poetic Art and Horace's Science of Poetry, he summarized and developed the classicist principles with unusual foresight for a young man in an enlightening spirit. He considered "imitation of nature" as an imitation of an ancient model. Adhering to the concept of "measure", "relevance", "plausibility", he, as an educational humanist, called for a reasonable, "natural" life. Pope considered taste to be innate, but becoming correct under the influence of education, and, therefore, inherent in a person from any class. He opposed the pompous style of the baroque, but the "simplicity" of the language in his understanding appeared as the "clarity" and "relevance" of the style, and not the expansion of the vocabulary and the democratization of expressions. Like all enlighteners, Pope had a negative attitude towards the "barbarian" Middle Ages. In general, Pope went beyond the strict classicist doctrine: he did not deny the possibility of deviating from ancient rules; he recognized the influence of "genius" and "climate" on the appearance of masterpieces of art, not only in Ancient Greece and Rome. By speaking out against the twelve-syllable verse, he contributed to the final approval of the heroic couplet. In An Essay on Criticism, Pope touched not only common problems- selfishness, wit, humility, pride, etc. - but also private questions, including the motives of the behavior of critics.

French classicism reached its peak in the tragedies of Corneille and Racine, in the fables of Lafontaine and the comedies of Molière. However, the artistic practice of these luminaries of French literature of the 17th century often diverged from the theoretical principles of classicism. So, for example, despite the one-linearity inherent in this direction in the image of a person, they managed to create complex characters full of internal contradictions. The preaching of public "reasonable" duty is combined in the tragedies of Corneille and Racine with an emphasis on the tragic inevitability of suppressing personal feelings and inclinations. In the works of La Fontaine and Moliere - writers whose work was closely connected with the humanistic literature of the Renaissance and folklore - democratic and realistic tendencies are deeply developed. Because of this, a number of Molière's comedies are essentially and outwardly connected with the dramatic theory of classicism.

Moliere believed that comedy has two tasks: to teach and to entertain. If you deprive comedy of its edifying effect, it will turn into empty scoffing; if its entertainment functions are taken away from it, it will cease to be a comedy, and the moralizing goals will not be achieved either. In a word, "the duty of comedy is to correct people by amusing them."

Moliere's ideas about the tasks of comedy do not go beyond the circle of classicist aesthetics. The task of comedy, as he envisioned it, "is to give on the stage a pleasing portrayal of common vices." He shows here the classicists' inclination towards rationalistic abstraction of types. Molière's comedies deal with a wide range of issues modern life Keywords: relations between fathers and children, upbringing, marriage and family, the moral state of society (hypocrisy, greed, vanity, etc.), class, religion, culture, science (medicine, philosophy), etc. This set of themes is based on Parisian material, with the exception of the Comtesse d'Escarbagna, whose action takes place in the provinces. Molière takes subjects not only from real life; he draws them from ancient (Plavt, Terence) and Renaissance Italian and Spanish dramaturgy (N. Barbieri, N. Secchi, T. de Molina), as well as from the French medieval folk tradition(fablios, farces).

Racine Jean is a French playwright whose work represents the pinnacle of French classic theater. The only comedy Rasina Sutyagi was staged in 1668. In 1669, the Britannic tragedy was moderately successful. In Andromache, Racine first used a plot scheme that would become common in his later plays: A pursues B, and he loves C. A variant of this model is given in Britannica, where the criminal and innocent couples confront: Agrippina and Nero - Junia and Britannicus. Staging in next year Berenice, in which the title role was played by Racine's new mistress, Mademoiselle de Chanmelet, became one of the greatest mysteries in the history of literature. It was claimed that in the images of Titus and Berenice, Racine brought Louis XIV and his daughter-in-law Henrietta of England, who allegedly gave Racine and Corneille the idea to write a play on the same plot. Now the version seems more reliable that the love of Titus and Berenice reflected a brief but stormy romance of the king with Maria Mancini, the niece of Cardinal Mazarin, whom Louis wanted to put on the throne. The version of the rivalry between the two playwrights is also disputed. It is possible that Corneille learned of Racine's intentions and, in accordance with the literary mores of the seventeenth century, wrote his tragedy Titus and Berenice in the hope of getting the better of his rival. If so, he acted recklessly: Racine won a triumphant victory in the competition.

Jean De La Fontaine (1621–1695), French poet In 1667, the Duchess of Bouillon became patroness of La Fontaine. Continuing to compose poems that were quite free in content, in 1665 he published his first collection, Stories in Verse, followed by Tales and Stories in Verse and The Love of Psyche and Cupid. Remaining until 1672 the protégé of the Duchess of Bouillon and wanting to please her, Lafontaine began to write Fables and published the first six books in 1668. During this period, his friends included N. Boileau-Despreo, Madame de Sevigne, J. Racine and Molière. Passing ultimately under the patronage of the Marquise de la Sablière, the poet in 1680 completed the publication of twelve books of "Fables" and in 1683 was elected a member of the French Academy. Lafontaine died in Paris on April 14, 1695.

The stories in verse and short poems of Lafontaine are now almost forgotten, although they are full of wit and represent an example of the classicist genre. At first glance, the lack of moral edification in them is in clear contradiction with the essence of the genre. But with a more thoughtful analysis, it becomes clear that many of the fables of Aesop, Phaedrus, Nevle and other authors, in the arrangement of La Fontaine, have lost their instructive meaning, and we understand that for traditional form hiding not quite orthodox judgments.

Lafontaine's fables are remarkable for their variety, rhythmic perfection, skillful use of archaisms (reviving the style of the medieval Romance of the Fox), sober view of the world and deep realism. An example is the fable "The Wolf and the Fox on trial before the Monkey":

The wolf made a request to the Monkey,

Lisa was accused of cheating in it

And in theft; Foxes temper is known

Cunning, cunning and dishonest.

And now Lisa is called to court.

The case was dealt with without lawyers, -

The Wolf accused, the Fox defended herself;

Of course, everyone stood for their own benefits.

Themis never, according to the judge,

There has never been such a confusing case ...

And the Monkey thought, groaned,

And after disputes, cries and speeches,

Both the Wolf and the Fox are well aware of the manners,

She said, “Well, you're both wrong;

I have known you for a long time...

I'll read my verdict now:

The wolf is guilty for the falsity of the accusation,

The fox is guilty of robbery."

The judge decided that he would be right

Punishing those in whom the thieves have a temper.

In this fable, under the guise of animals, real people are represented, namely: the judge, the plaintiff and the defendant. And, what is very important, it is the people of the bourgeoisie who are depicted, and not the peasants.

French classicism most clearly manifested itself in dramaturgy, however, in prose, where the requirements for compliance with aesthetic norms were less strict, he created a peculiar genre inherent in it - the genre of aphorism. In France XVII century there were several writers - aphorists. These are the writers who did not create novels, short stories, or short stories, but only brief, extremely compressed prose miniatures or wrote down their thoughts - the fruit of life's observations and reflections.

In Russia, the formation of classicism takes place almost three-quarters of a century later than it took shape in France. For Russian writers, Voltaire, a representative of contemporary French classicism, was no less an authority than such founders of this literary movement as Corneille or Racine.

Russian classicism had many features in common with Western, in particular with French classicism, since it also arose during the period of absolutism, but it was not a simple imitation. Russian classicism originated and developed on an original soil, taking into account the experience that was accumulated earlier by its established and developed Western European classicism.

The peculiar features of Russian classicism are as follows: firstly, from the very beginning, Russian classicism has a strong connection with modern reality, which is illuminated in the best works from the point of view of advanced ideas.

The second feature of Russian classicism is the diatribe-satirical stream in their work, conditioned by the progressive social ideas of the writers. The presence of satire in the works of Russian classicist writers gives their work a vitally truthful character. Living modernity, Russian reality, Russian people and Russian nature are to a certain extent reflected in their works.

The third feature of Russian classicism, due to the ardent patriotism of Russian writers, is their interest in the history of their homeland. All of them study Russian history, write works on national, historical themes. They strive to create fiction and its language on a national basis, give it their own, Russian face, show attention to folk poetry and folk language.

Along with the general features inherent in both French and Russian classicism, the latter also has such features that give it the character of national identity. For example, this is an increased civic-patriotic pathos, a much more pronounced accusatory-realistic tendency, less alienation from oral folk art. Everyday and solemn cantes of the first decades of the 18th century largely prepared the development of various genres of lyrics in the middle and second half of the 18th century.

The main thing in the ideology of classicism is state pathos. The state, created in the first decades of the 18th century, was declared the highest value. The classicists, inspired by the Petrine reforms, believed in the possibility of its further improvement. It seemed to them a rationally arranged social organism, where each estate performs the duties assigned to it. “Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate science,” wrote A.P. Sumarokov. The state pathos of the Russian classicists is a deeply contradictory phenomenon. It reflected progressive tendencies connected with the final centralization of Russia, and at the same time - utopian ideas coming from a clear overestimation of the social possibilities of enlightened absolutism.

Four major literary figures contributed to the approval of classicism: A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumarokov.

A. D. Kantemir lived in an era when the first foundations of the modern Russian literary language were just being laid; his satires were written according to the syllabic system of versification, which was already outliving at that time, and nevertheless, the name of Cantemir, in the words of Belinsky, "has already survived many ephemeral celebrities, both classical and romantic, and will still outlive many thousands of them," since Cantemir " first in Russia brought poetry to life. “Symphony on the Psalter” is the first printed work of A. Kantemir, but not his first literary work in general, which is confirmed by an authorized manuscript of the little-known translation of Antiochus Kantemir called “Mr. Philosopher Constantine Manassis Synopsis Historical”, dated 1725.

In the “Translation of a certain Italian letter”, made by A. Cantemir only one year later (1726), vernacular is no longer present in the form of random elements, but as a dominant norm, although the language of this translation was also called Cantemir, out of habit, “gloriously -Russian".

The rapid transition from Church Slavonic vocabulary, morphology and syntax to vernacular, as the norm of literary speech, which can be traced in the earliest works of A. Kantemir, reflected the evolution of not only his individual and individual language and style, but also the development of the linguistic consciousness of the era and the formation of Russian literary language in general.

By 1726-1728, the work of A. Cantemir on love poems that have not come down to us, about which he later wrote with a feeling of some regret in the second edition of the IV satire, should be attributed. During this period, Antioch Cantemir showed an increased interest in French literature, which is confirmed both by the above-mentioned "Translation of a certain Italian letter" and by Cantemir's notes in his calendar of 1728, from which we learn about the young writer's acquaintance with French satirical magazines of the English type like " Le Mentor moderne”, as well as with the works of Molière (“The Misanthrope”) and the comedies of Marivaux. The work of A. Cantemir on the translation into Russian of the four satires of Boileau and the writing of the original poems “On a Quiet Life” and “On Zoila” should also be attributed to the same period.

The early translations of A. Cantemir and his love lyrics were only a preparatory stage in the poet's work, the first test of strength, the development of language and style, manner of presentation, his own way of seeing the world.

Poems from Philosophical Letters

I honor the law here, obeying rights;

However, I am free to live according to my charters:

The spirit is calm, now life goes on without misfortune,

Every day to eradicate my passions

And looking at the limit, so I establish life,

I calmly guide my days to the end.

I don't miss anyone, there is no need for penalties,

I am happy that I shortened the days of my desires.

I now know the perishability of my age,

I don’t want, I’m not afraid, I expect death.

When you have mercy on me irrevocably

Reveal, then I will be completely happy.

From 1729, the period of the poet's creative maturity begins, when he quite consciously focuses his attention almost exclusively on satire:

In a word, in satires I want to grow old,

And I can’t not write: I can’t stand it.

(IV satire, I ed.)

The first satire of Cantemir, “On those who blaspheme the teachings” (“To your own mind”), was a work of great political resonance, since it was directed against ignorance as a specific social and political force, and not an abstract vice; against ignorance "in an embroidered dress", opposing the transformations of Peter I and enlightenment, against the teachings of Copernicus and book printing; the ignorance of the militant and the triumphant; invested with the authority of the state and church authorities.

Pride, laziness, wealth - wisdom prevailed,
Ignorance knowledge is already a settled place;
It is proud under the miter, walks in an embroidered dress,
It judges the red cloth, leads the regiments.
Science is tattered, sheathed in rags,
Of all the most noble houses, she was shot down with a curse.

Contrary to the preface to the satire, in which the author tried to assure the reader that everything in it was “written for fun” and that he, the author, “did not imagine anyone in particular,” Cantemir’s first satire was directed against quite definite and “particular” persons, - these were the enemies of the cause of Peter and the "scientific squad". “The character of the bishop,” Cantemir wrote in one of the notes to the satire, “although the author describes it from an unknown person, it has many similarities with D ***, who in outdoor ceremonies supplied the entire high priesthood office.” Ridiculing in the satire of a churchman, whose entire education is limited to the assimilation of the "Stone of Faith" by Stefan Yavorsky, Kantemir unequivocally pointed to his own ideological position - a supporter of the "scientific squad". The images of churchmen created by Cantemir corresponded to very real prototypes, and yet they were generalizations, they excited minds, reactionary churchmen of new generations continued to recognize themselves in them, when the name of Antiochus Cantemir became the property of history and when the names of Georgy Dashkov and his associates were betrayed complete oblivion.

If Kantemir gave samples of Russian satire, then Trediakovsky belongs to the first Russian ode, which was published as a separate brochure in 1734. under the title "Ode solemn about the surrender of the city of Gdansk" (Danzig). It sang of the Russian army and Empress Anna Ioannovna. In 1752, in connection with the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of St. Petersburg, the poem "Praise to the Izherskaya land and the reigning city of St. Petersburg" was written. This is one of the first works glorifying the northern capital of Russia.

In addition to victorious and commendable, Trediakovsky also wrote "spiritual" odes, that is, poetic transcriptions ("paraphrases") of biblical psalms. The most successful of them is the paraphrase "The Second Songs of Moses", which began with verses:

Wonmi oh! Sky and river

Let the earth hear the mouth of the verbs:

Like rain, I will flow with a word;

And they will descend like dew to a flower,

My broadcasts are down.

Very heartfelt poems are "Poems of Praise for Russia", in which Trediakovsky finds clear and precise words to convey both his immense admiration for the Fatherland and longing for his native land.

I'll start on the flute, poems are sad,

In vain to Russia through distant countries:

For all day to me her kindness

To think with the mind is a little hunting.

Mother Russia! my infinite light!

Let me ask your faithful child,

Oh, how red you sit on the throne!

The Russian sky you are the Sun is clear

Golden scepters paint all others,

And precious porphyry, miter;

You decorated your scepter with yourself,

And she honored the crown with a bright lyceum ...

By 1735 "Epistole from Russian Poetry to Apollinus" (to Apollo) dates back, in which the author gives an overview of European literature, paying special attention to ancient and French. The latter is represented by the names of Malherbe, Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Boileau, Voltaire. The solemn invitation of "Apollin" to Russia symbolized the familiarization of Russian poetry with the centuries-old European art.

The next step in acquainting the Russian reader with European classicism was the translation of Boileau's treatise The Art of Poetry (from Trediakovsky's The Science of Poetry) and Horace's Epistle to the Pisons. Here are presented not only "exemplary" writers, but also poetic "rules", which, according to the translator's firm conviction, Russian authors must also follow. Trediakovsky highly appreciated Boileau's treatise, considering it the most perfect guide in the field of artistic creation. “His piitic science,” he wrote, “seems to be excellent in front of everything, both in the reasoning of the composition of verses and the purity of the language, and in the reasoning ... of the rules proposed in it.”

In 1751 Trediakovsky published his own translation of the English writer John Barclay's novel Argenida. The novel was written in Latin and belonged to the number of moral and political works. The choice of Trediakovsky is not accidental, since the problems of Argenida echoed the political tasks facing Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. The novel glorified "enlightened" absolutism and severely condemned any opposition to the supreme power, from religious sects to political movements. These ideas corresponded to the ideology of early Russian classicism. In the preface to the book, Trediakovsky pointed out that the state "rules" set forth in it are useful for Russian society.

In 1766, Trediakovsky published a book titled "Tilemakhida, or the Wandering of Tilemakh, the son of Odysseus, described as part of an ironic piima" - a free translation of the novel by the early French educator Fenelon "The Adventures of Telemachus". Fenelon wrote his work in the last years of the reign of Louis XIV, when France suffered from devastating wars, the result of which was the decline of agriculture and crafts.

The historical and literary significance of the Tilemakhida, however, lies not only in its critical content, but also in the more complex tasks that Trediakovsky set himself as a translator. In essence, it was not about translation in the usual sense of the word, but about a radical reworking of the very genre of the book. On the basis of Fenelon's novel, Trediakovsky created a heroic poem modeled on the Homeric epic and, accordingly to his task, called the book not "The Adventures of Telemachus", but "Tilemachis".

Remaking the novel into a poem, Trediakovsky introduces many things that were not in Fenelon's book. So, the beginning of the poem reproduces the beginning, characteristic of the ancient Greek epic. Here is the famous “I sing”, and an appeal to the muse for help, and a summary of the content of the work. Fenelon's novel is written in prose, Trediakovsky's poem in hexameter. The style of the Fenelonian novel is just as radically updated. According to A. N. Sokolov, "Fenelon's concise, strict prose, stingy with prose embellishments, did not meet the stylistic principles of the poetic epic as a high genre ... Trediakovsky poeticizes Fenelon's prose style." To this end, he introduces complex epithets into Tilemakhida, so characteristic of the Homeric epic and completely absent in Fenelon's novel: honey-flowing, multi-jet, sharp-severe, prudent, bleeding. There are more than a hundred such complex adjectives in Trediakovsky's poem. Following the example of complex epithets, complex nouns are created: translucence, fighting, good neighborliness, splendor.

Trediakovsky carefully preserved the enlightening pathos of Fenelon's novel. If in the Argenides it was about the justification of absolutism, which suppresses all kinds of disobedience, then in the Tilemakhis the supreme power becomes the subject of condemnation. It speaks of the despotism of rulers, their addiction to luxury and bliss, the inability of kings to distinguish virtuous people from greed and money-grubbers, flatterers who surround the throne and prevent monarchs from seeing the truth.

I asked him, what does tsarist sovereignty consist in?

He answered: the king is powerful in everything over the people,

But the laws over him in everything are powerful, of course.

"Tilemakhida" caused a different attitude towards itself both among contemporaries and descendants. In Tilemakhida, Trediakovsky clearly demonstrated the variety of possibilities of the hexameter as an epic verse. Trediakovsky's experience was later used by N. I. Gnedich in translating the Iliad and V. A. Zhukovsky in his work on the Odyssey.

Lomonosov's first work dealing with problems of language was the Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry (1739, published in 1778), written back in Germany, where he substantiates the applicability of syllabo-tonic versification to the Russian language.

According to Lomonosov, each literary genre should be written in a certain “calm”: “high calm” is “required” for heroic poems, odes, “prosaic speeches about important matters”; middle - for poetic messages, elegies, satires, descriptive prose, etc .; low - for comedies, epigrams, songs, "writings of ordinary affairs." "Shtils" were ordered, first of all, in the field of vocabulary, depending on the ratio of neutral (common for Russian and Church Slavonic languages), Church Slavonic and Russian colloquial words. "High calm" is characterized by a combination of Slavic words with neutral words, "middle calm" is built on the basis of neutral vocabulary with the addition of a certain number of Slavic words and colloquial words, "low calm" combines neutral and colloquial words. Such a program made it possible to overcome the Russian-Church Slavonic diglossia, which was still noticeable in the first half of the 18th century, and to create a single stylistically differentiated literary language. The theory of "three calms" had a significant impact on the development of the Russian literary language in the second half of the 18th century. up to the activities of the school of N.M. Karamzin (since the 1790s), which set a course for the convergence of the Russian literary language with the spoken language.

Lomonosov's poetic heritage includes solemn odes, philosophical ode-reflections "Morning reflection on God's majesty" (1743) and "Evening reflection on God's majesty" (1743), poetic transcriptions of psalms and the adjoining Ode chosen from Job (1751) , the unfinished heroic poem Peter the Great (1756–1761), satirical poems (Hymn to the Beard, 1756–1757, etc.), the philosophical “Conversation with Anacreon” (translation of the Anacreontic odes in conjunction with their own responses to them; 1757–1761), heroic idyll Polydor (1750), two tragedies, numerous poems on the occasion of various festivities, epigrams, parables, translated poems.

The pinnacle of Lomonosov's poetic work is his odes, written "on occasion" - in connection with significant events in the life of the state, for example, the accession to the throne of Empresses Elizabeth and Catherine II. Lomonosov used solemn occasions to create vivid and majestic pictures of the universe. The odes are replete with metaphors, hyperbole, allegories, rhetorical questions, and other tropes that create internal dynamics and sound richness of the verse, imbued with patriotic pathos, reflections on the future of Russia. In the Ode on the day of the accession to the All-Russian throne of Elizabeth Petrovna (1747), he wrote:

The sciences feed young men,

They give joy to the old,

Decorate in a happy life

Save in case of an accident.

Classicism marked an important stage in the development of Russian literature. At the time of the establishment of this literary trend, the historical task of transforming versification was solved. At the same time, a solid foundation was laid for the formation of the Russian literary language, eliminating the contradiction between the new content and the old forms of its expression, which was revealed with all its sharpness in the literature of the first three decades of the 18th century.

As a literary trend, Russian classicism was distinguished by its internal complexity, heterogeneity, due to the difference in the ideological and literary and artistic features of the work of its founders. The leading genres that were developed by the representatives of classicism during the period of establishment of this literary trend were, on the one hand, ode and tragedy, which propagated the ideals of enlightened absolutism in positive images, and, on the other hand, satirical genres that fought against political reaction, against the enemies of enlightenment, against social vices and etc.

Russian classicism did not shy away from national folklore. On the contrary, in the perception of the tradition of folk poetic culture in certain genres, he found incentives for his enrichment. Even at the origins of the new direction, undertaking the reform of Russian versification, Trediakovsky directly refers to the songs of the common people as a model that he followed in establishing his rules.

In the purely artistic realm, the Russian classicists faced such difficult tasks that their European counterparts did not know. French literature of the middle of the 17th century. already had a well-crafted literary language and secular genres that had developed over a long period of time. Russian literature at the beginning of the 18th century. had neither one nor the other. Therefore, the share of Russian writers of the second third of the XVIII century. the task was not only to create a new literary trend. They were supposed to reform the literary language, master genres unknown in Russia until that time. Each of them was a pioneer. Kantemir laid the foundation for Russian satire, Lomonosov legitimized the ode genre, Sumarokov acted as the author of tragedies and comedies. In the field of literary language reform, the main role belonged to Lomonosov.

The creative activity of Russian classicists was accompanied and supported by numerous theoretical works in the field of genres, literary language and versification. Trediakovsky wrote a treatise entitled "A New and Short Way to Add Russian Poetry", in which he substantiated the basic principles of a new, syllabic-tonic system. Lomonosov, in his discussion "On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language," carried out a reform of the literary language and proposed the doctrine of the "three calms." Sumarokov in his treatise "Instruction to those who want to be writers" gave a description of the content and style of classic genres.

Russian classicism of the 18th century. went through two stages in its development. The first of them refers to the 30-50s. This is the formation of a new direction, when genres unknown until that time in Russia are born one after another, the literary language and versification are being reformed. The second stage falls on the last four decades of the 18th century. and is associated with the names of such writers as Fonvizin, Kheraskov, Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Kapnist. In their work, Russian classicism most fully and widely revealed its ideological and artistic possibilities.

The originality of Russian classicism lies in the fact that in the era of its formation it combined the pathos of serving the absolutist state with the ideas of the early European Enlightenment. In 18th century France absolutism had already exhausted its progressive possibilities, and society was facing a bourgeois revolution, which was ideologically prepared by the French enlighteners. In Russia in the first decades of the XVIII century. absolutism was still at the head of progressive transformations for the country. Therefore, at the first stage of its development, Russian classicism adopted from the Enlightenment some of its social doctrines. These include primarily the idea of ​​enlightened absolutism. According to this theory, the state should be headed by a wise, “enlightened” monarch, who in his ideas stands above the selfish interests of individual estates and requires each of them to serve honestly for the benefit of the whole society. An example of such a ruler was for the Russian classicists Peter I, a unique person in terms of mind, energy and broad state outlook.

In contrast to the French classicism of the XVII century. and in direct accordance with the Age of Enlightenment in Russian classicism of the 30-50s, a huge place was given to the sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. The country has made the transition from church ideology to secular. Russia needed accurate, useful knowledge for society. Lomonosov spoke about the benefits of the sciences in almost all of his odes. The first satire of Kantemir “To your mind. On those who blaspheme the teaching." The very word "enlightened" meant not just an educated person, but a citizen who was helped by knowledge to realize his responsibility to society. "Ignorance" meant not only a lack of knowledge, but at the same time a lack of understanding of one's duty to the state. In Western European educational literature of the 18th century, especially on late stage its development, "enlightenment" was determined by the degree of opposition to the existing order. In Russian classicism of the 30s-50s, "enlightenment" was measured by the measure of civil service to the absolutist state. The Russian classicists - Kantemir, Lomonosov, Sumarokov - were close to the struggle of the enlighteners against the church and church ideology. But if in the West it was about protecting the principle of religious tolerance, and in some cases atheism, then Russian enlighteners in the first half of the 18th century. denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science and its adherents from persecution by church authorities. The first Russian classicists already knew the enlightening idea of ​​the natural equality of people. “The flesh in your servant is one-sided,” Cantemir pointed out to a nobleman who was beating a valet. Sumarokov reminded the “noble” class that “born from women and from ladies / Without exception, all forefather Adam.” But this thesis at that time was not yet embodied in the demand for the equality of all classes before the law. Cantemir, based on the principles of "natural law", called on the nobles to humane treatment of the peasants. Sumarokov, pointing to the natural equality of nobles and peasants, demanded from the "first" members of the fatherland of education and service to confirm their "nobility" and command position in the country.

If in Western European versions of classicism, and especially in the system of genres of French classicism, the dominant place belonged to the dramatic genre - tragedy and comedy, then in Russian classicism the genre dominant shifts to the area of ​​lyricism and satire.

Common genres with French classicism: tragedy, comedy, idyll, elegy, ode, sonnet, epigram, satire.

Introduction

1.Characteristics of classicism

2. Basics of classicism and its meaning

3. Features of classicism in Russia and its supporters

3.1 Kantemirov A.D.

3.2 Trediakovsky V.K.

3.3 Lomonosov M.V.

4. Russian classicism as a literary movement

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

From the Latin classicus - exemplary. A style or trend in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which turned to the ancient heritage as a norm and an ideal model. Classicism took shape in the 17th century. in France. In the 18th century classicism was associated with the Enlightenment; based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the rational laws of the world, about the beautiful ennobled nature, he strove to express great social content, sublime heroic and moral ideals, to a strict organization of logical, clear and harmonious images.

According to the lofty ethical ideas, the educational program of art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; historical, mythological, religious painting, etc.) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable; genre painting and etc.). In literature (the tragedies of P. Corneille, J. Racine, Voltaire, the comedies of Moliere, the poem "The Art of Poetry" and the satires of N. Boileau, the fables of J. La Fontaine, the prose of F. La Rochefoucauld, J. La Bruyère in France, the work of the Weimar period of I.V. (Goethe and F. Schiller in Germany, the odes of M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov and Ya. B. Knyazhnin in Russia), the leading role is played by significant ethical collisions, normative typified images. For theatrical art [Mondory, T. Duparc, M. Chanmele, A.L. Lequin, F.J. Talma, Rachel in France, F.K. Neuber in Germany, F.G. Volkov, I.A. Dmitrevsky in Russia] are characterized by a solemn, static structure of performances, measured reading of poetry. In the musical theater, heroism, elation of style, logical clarity of dramaturgy, the dominance of recitative (J.B. Lully's operas in France) or vocal virtuosity in arias (Italian opera seria), noble simplicity and sublimity (K.V. Gluck's reformist operas in Austria). Classicism in architecture (J. Hardouin - mansart, J.A. Gabriel, K.N. Ledoux in France, K. Ren in England, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, A.N. Voronikhin, A.D. Zakharov, K.I. Rossi in Russia) are characterized by clearness and geometrism of forms, rational clarity of planning, combinations of a smooth wall with a sorter and restrained decor. Fine arts (painters N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, J.L. David, J.O.D. Ingres, sculptors J.B. Pigalle, E.M. Falcone in France, I.G. Shadov in Germany, B Thorvaldsen in Denmark, A. Canova in Italy, painters A.P. Losenko, G.I. Ugryumov, sculptors M.P. Matros in Russia) are distinguished by the logical unfolding of the plot, the strict balance of the composition, the plastic clarity of forms, the clear harmony of linear rhythms .

1.Characteristics of classicism

This direction is characterized by a high civic theme, strict observance of certain creative norms and rules. Classicism, as a certain artistic direction, tends to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards a certain “norm”, a model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of modern and harmonic art. According to the rules of classicism aesthetics, which strictly adheres to the so-called "hierarchy of genres", tragedy, ode and epic belonged to the "high genres", and had to develop especially important problems, resorting to ancient and historical plots, and display only the sublime, heroic sides of life. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, fable, satire and others, designed to reflect modern reality.

Each genre had its own theme (selection of topics), and each work was built according to the rules developed for this. It was strictly forbidden to mix the techniques of various literary genres in the work.

The most developed genres in the period of classicism were tragedies, poems and odes. Tragedy, in the understanding of the classicists, is such a dramatic work, which depicts the struggle of a person outstanding in his spiritual strength with insurmountable obstacles; such a struggle usually ends in the death of the hero. The classicist writers put the tragedy at the heart of the collision (conflict) of the hero's personal feelings and aspirations with his duty to the state. This conflict was resolved by the victory of duty. The plots of the tragedy were borrowed from the writers of ancient Greece and Rome, sometimes taken from the historical events of the past. Heroes were kings, commanders. As in Greco-Roman tragedy, the characters were portrayed as either positive or negative, and each person was the personification of any one spiritual trait, one quality: positive courage, justice, etc., negative - ambition, hypocrisy. These were conditional characters. Also conditionally depicted and life, and the era. There was no true image of historical reality, nationality (it is not known where and when the action takes place).

The tragedy was supposed to have five acts.

The playwright had to strictly observe the rules of the "three unities": time, place and action. The unity of time required that all the events of the tragedy fit within a period not exceeding one day. The unity of the place was expressed in the fact that the whole action of the play took place in one place - in the palace or on the square. The unity of action presupposed an internal connection of events; nothing superfluous, not necessary for the development of the plot, was allowed in the tragedy. Tragedy had to be written in solemnly majestic verse.

The poem was an epic (narrative) work, setting out in poetic language an important historical event or glorifying the exploits of heroes and kings.

Ode is a solemn song of praise in honor of kings, generals or a victory won over enemies. The ode was supposed to express the delight, inspiration of the author (pathos). Therefore, it was characterized by an elevated, solemn language, rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, the personification of abstract concepts (science, victory), images of gods and goddesses, and conscious exaggerations. In terms of the ode, “lyrical disorder” was allowed, which was expressed in a deviation from the harmony of the presentation of the main theme. But it was a conscious, strictly considered digression ("proper mess").

2. Basics of classicism and its meaning

classicism literature style

The doctrine of classicism was based on the idea of ​​the dualism of human nature. In the struggle between the material and the spiritual, the greatness of man was revealed. The personality was affirmed in the fight against "passions", freed from selfish material interests. The rational, spiritual principle in a person was considered as the most important quality of a person. The idea of ​​the greatness of reason, which unites people, found expression in the creation of the theory of art by the classicists. In the aesthetics of classicism, it is seen as a way to imitate the essence of things. “Virtue,” Sumarokov wrote, “we owe not to our nature. Morality and politics make us useful to the common good in terms of enlightenment, reason and purification of hearts. And without that, people would have long ago exterminated each other without a trace.

Classicism - urban, metropolitan poetry. There are almost no images of nature in it, and if landscapes are given, then urban ones, pictures of artificial nature are drawn: squares, grottoes, fountains, trimmed trees.

This direction is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it repels the aesthetics of the Renaissance that preceded it and opposes the Baroque art that actively coexists with it, imbued with a consciousness of general discord generated by the crisis of the ideals of the past era. Continuing some of the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancients, faith in reason, the ideal of harmony and measure), classicism was a kind of antithesis to it; behind the external harmony, it hides the internal antinomy of the worldview, which makes it related to the baroque (for all their deep differences). Generic and individual, public and private, reason and feeling, civilization and nature, which acted (in a trend) in the art of the Renaissance as a single harmonious whole, in classicism are polarized, become mutually exclusive concepts. This reflected a new historical state, when the political and private spheres began to disintegrate, and social relations turned into a separate and abstract force for a person.

For its time, classicism had a positive meaning. Writers proclaimed the importance of a person fulfilling his civic duties, sought to educate a person-citizen; developed the question of genres, their compositions, streamlined the language. Classicism dealt a crushing blow to medieval literature, full of faith in the miraculous, in ghosts, subordinating human consciousness to the teachings of the church. Enlightenment classicism was formed earlier than others in foreign literature. In works devoted to the 18th century, this trend is often assessed as the “high” classicism of the 17th century that has fallen into decay. This is not entirely true. Of course, there is a succession between Enlightenment and "high" classicism, but Enlightenment classicism is an integral artistic movement that reveals the previously unused artistic potential of classic art and has enlightening features. The literary doctrine of classicism was associated with advanced philosophical systems, representing a reaction to medieval mysticism and scholasticism. These philosophical systems were, in particular, the rationalistic theory of Descartes and the materialistic doctrine of Gassendi. The philosophy of Descartes, who declared reason the only criterion of truth, had a particularly great influence on the formation of the aesthetic principles of classicism. In the theory of Descartes, the materialistic principles, based on the data of the exact sciences, were combined in a peculiar way with the idealistic principles, with the assertion of the decisive superiority of the spirit, thinking over matter, being, with the theory of the so-called "innate" ideas. The cult of reason underlies the aesthetics of classicism. Since any feeling in the view of the adherents of the theory of classicism was random and arbitrary, the measure of a person's value was for them the correspondence of his actions to the laws of reason. Above all in man, classicism placed the "reasonable" ability to suppress personal feelings and passions in oneself in the name of one's duty to the state. A person in the works of the followers of classicism is, first of all, a servant of the state, a person in general, because the rejection of the inner life of the individual naturally followed from the principle of subordination of the particular to the general proclaimed by classicism. Classicism depicted not so much people as characters, images-concepts. Typification was carried out because of this in the form of images-masks, which were the embodiment of human vices and virtues. Just as abstract was the timeless and spaceless setting in which these images operated. Classicism was ahistorical even in those cases when it turned to the depiction of historical events and historical figures, for writers were not interested in historical authenticity, but in the possibility through the lips of pseudo-historical heroes of eternal and general truths, eternal and general properties of characters, allegedly inherent in people of all times and peoples.

Classicism is a literary style that was developed in France in the 17th century. It gained its distribution in Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The direction, which turned to antiquity as an ideal model, is closely connected with. Based on the ideas of rationalism and rationality, it sought to express social content, to establish a hierarchy of literary genres. Speaking about the world representatives of classicism, one cannot fail to mention Racine, Moliere, Corneille, La Rochefoucauld, Boileau, Labruille, Goethe. Mondori, Leken, Rachel, Talma, Dmitrievsky were imbued with the ideas of classicism.

The desire to display the ideal in the real, the eternal in the temporal - that's feature classicism. In literature, not a certain character is created, but collective image hero or villain, or base. In classicism, a mixture of genres, images and characters is unacceptable. There are boundaries here that no one is allowed to break.

Classicism in Russian literature is a certain turn in art, giving special meaning such genres as epic poem, ode, tragedy. The founder is considered to be Lomonosov, tragedies - Sumarokov. The ode combined journalism and lyrics. Comedies were directly related to ancient times, while tragedies told about the figures of national history. Speaking about the great Russian figures of the period of classicism, it is worth mentioning Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Sumarokov, Volkov, Fonvizin and others.

Classicism in Russian literature of the 18th century, as well as in French literature, relied on the positions of tsarist power. As they themselves said, art should guard the interests of society, give people a certain idea of ​​civic behavior and morality. The ideas of serving the state and society are consonant with the interests of the monarchy, so classicism has become widespread throughout Europe and in Russia. But it should not be associated only with the ideas of glorifying the power of monarchs, Russian writers reflected in their works the interests of the "middle" layer.

Classicism in Russian literature. Main features

The basic ones include:

• appeal to antiquity, its various forms and images;
• the principle of unity of time, action and place (one story line, the action lasts up to 1 day);
• in the comedies of classicism, good triumphs over evil, vices are punished, based on love line- triangle;
• the characters have "speaking" names and surnames, they themselves have a clear division into positive and negative.

Delving into history, it is worth remembering that the era of classicism in Russia originates from the writer who was the first to write works in this genre (epigrams, satires, etc.). Each of the writers and poets of this era was a pioneer in his field. Lomonosov played the main role in the reform of the literary Russian language. At the same time, a reform of versification took place.

As Fedorov V.I. says, the first prerequisites for the emergence of classicism in Russia appeared during the time of Peter the Great (in 1689-1725). As a genre of literature, the style of classicism was formed by the mid-1730s. In the second half of the 1960s, its rapid development took place. There is a dawn of journalistic genres in periodicals. It evolved already by 1770, but the crisis began in the last quarter of a century. By that time, sentimentalism had finally taken shape, and the tendencies of realism intensified. The final fall of classicism occurred after the publication of "Conversations of lovers of the Russian word."

Classicism in Russian literature of the 1930s and 1950s also influenced the development of the sciences of the Enlightenment. At this time, there was a transition from the ideology of the church to the secular. Russia needed knowledge and new minds. All this gave her classicism.

New Russian literature takes a big step forward in the 30-50s of the 18th century. This is due to the active work of the first major writers - representatives of the new Russian literature: A. D. Kantemir (1708–1744), V. K. Trediakovsky (1703–1769), A. P. Sumarokov (1717–1777) and especially the brilliant figure of Russian science and culture Lomonosov. These four writers belonged to different strata of society (Kantemir and Sumarokov - to the noble elite, Trediakovsky was a native of the clergy, Lomonosov - the son of a peasant). But all of them fought against the supporters of pre-Petrine antiquity, stood up for the further development of education, science, and culture. In the spirit of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment (as the 18th century is usually called), they were all supporters of the so-called enlightened absolutism: they believed that progressive historical development can be carried out by the bearer of supreme power - the king. And as an example of this, they set the activity of Peter I. Lomonosov in his laudatory poems - odes (from the Greek word meaning "song"), addressed to the kings and queens, gave them, drawing the ideal image of an enlightened monarch, a kind of lesson, urged them to follow the paths of Peter . Cantemir in accusatory poems - satires - sharply ridiculed adherents of antiquity, enemies of education, science. He scourged the ignorant and mercenary clergy, boyar sons, proud of the antiquity of their kind and having no merit to the fatherland, arrogant nobles, greedy merchants, bribe-taking officials. Sumarokov attacked the despot-kings in tragedies, opposing them with the ideal bearers of royal power. "Evil kings" were angrily denounced in the poem "Tilemakhida" by Trediakovsky. Progressive ideas, which to a greater or lesser extent imbued the activities of Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, significantly increase the social weight and significance of the new Russian literature they create. Literature is now at the forefront community development, becomes in its best manifestations the educator of society. Since that time the works fiction systematically appear in the press, attracting the sympathetic attention of an ever wider circle of readers.

New forms are created for new content. Through the efforts of Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov and Sumarokov, it is taking shape in accordance with the development of advanced European literatures the first major literary trend, which became dominant throughout almost the entire 18th century, was Russian classicism.

The founders and followers of classicism considered the main purpose of literature to serve the “benefit of society”. State interests, duty to the fatherland, should, according to their concepts, unconditionally prevail over private, personal interests. In contrast to the religious, medieval worldview, they considered the highest in a person to be his mind, the laws of which artistic creativity should also fully obey. They considered the most perfect, classical (hence the name and the whole direction) examples of beauty to be the wonderful creations of ancient, that is, ancient Greek and Roman art, which grew on the basis of the religious ideas of that time, but in the mythological images of gods and heroes essentially glorified beauty, strength and prowess of man. All this constituted the strengths of classicism, but they also contained its weakness, limitations.

The exaltation of the mind was due to the belittling of feelings, direct perception of the surrounding reality. This often gave the literature of classicism a rational character. By creating piece of art, the writer tried in every possible way to get closer to antique samples and strictly follow the rules specially developed for this by the theorists of classicism. This hampered the freedom of creativity. And the obligatory imitation of the creations of ancient art, no matter how perfect they were, inevitably separated literature from life, the writer from his modernity, and thus gave his work a conditional, artificial character. The most important thing is that the socio-political system of the era of classicism, based on the oppression of the people, in no way corresponded to reasonable concepts of natural, normal relations between people. Such a discrepancy made itself felt especially sharply in the autocratic-feudal Russia XVIII century, where instead of enlightened absolutism, the most unrestrained despotism reigned. Therefore, it was in Russian classicism, which was not accidentally started by the satyrs of Cantemir, that accusatory, critical themes and motives began to develop intensively.

This was especially pronounced in the last third of the 18th century. - a time of further strengthening of feudal oppression and the tyrannical dictatorship of the feudal nobility, headed by Empress Catherine II.

A critical attitude towards lack of rights, arbitrariness and violence corresponded to the moods and interests of broad sections of Russian society. The social role of literature is increasingly increasing. The last third of the century is the most flourishing period in the development of Russian literature XVIII centuries. If in the 1930s and 1950s writers could be counted on the fingers, now there are dozens of new writers' names. Writers-nobles occupy a predominant place. But there are also many writers from the lower classes, even from among the serfs. Empress Catherine II herself felt the increased importance of literature. She began to be very actively engaged in writing, trying in such ways to win over public opinion, to manage further development literature. However, she failed. A few and for the most part insignificant authors took her side. Almost all the major writers, figures of Russian education - N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin, young I. A. Krylov, A. N. Radishchev, the author of the comedy "Yabeda" V. V. Kapnist and many others - entered in a bold and energetic struggle against the reactionary literary camp of Catherine and her lackeys. This fight was fought in very difficult conditions. The works of writers objectionable to the queen were banned by censorship, and sometimes they were publicly burned by the "hand of the executioner"; their authors were severely persecuted, imprisoned, sentenced to death, exiled to Siberia. But, despite this, the advanced ideas that filled their work more and more penetrated the consciousness of society.

Literature itself is remarkably enriched thanks to the activity of progressive writers, for the most part. New literary genera and views. In the previous period literary works written almost exclusively in verse. Now the first examples of artistic prose are emerging. Dramaturgy is developing rapidly. The development of satirical genres (types) acquires a particularly wide scope: satires are intensively written not only in verse, but also in prose, satirical fables, the so-called iroikomic, parodic poems, satirical comedies, comic operas etc. In the work of the greatest poet of the XVIII century. Derzhavin's satirical principle penetrates even into a laudatory, solemn ode.

18th century satirists still follow the rules of classicism. But at the same time, pictures and images of real life are increasingly reflected in their work. They are no longer conditionally abstract in nature, as in the so-called high genres of classicism (odes, tragedies), but are directly taken from contemporary Russian reality. The works of critical writers - Novikov, Fonvizin, Radishchev - were direct predecessors of the work of the founders of the Russian critical realism 19th century - Pushkin, Gogol.

18th century satire still limited politically. Sharply denouncing the malevolent landowners who brutally treat their peasants, the satirists did not oppose the savagery and absurdity of the right of some people to own other people as their working cattle. Scourging the arbitrariness, violence, bribery, injustice that reigned in the country, the satirists did not connect them with the autocratic-feudal system that gave rise to all this. In the words of the remarkable Russian critic Dobrolyubov, they condemned "abuses of what in our concepts is already evil in itself." For the first time, the first Russian revolutionary writer Radishchev attacked indignantly not only individual abuses, but all the evils of autocracy and serfdom as a whole.