1) Decree of the XVI Congress of the CPSU /b/ "On the introduction of universal compulsory primary education for all children in the USSR" (1930); 2) The idea put forward by I. Stalin in the thirties of the renewal of "economic personnel" at all levels, which entailed the creation of industrial academies and engineering universities throughout the country, as well as the introduction of conditions that stimulate working people to receive education in the evening and correspondence departments of universities "without out of production."

The first construction projects of the five-year plan, the collectivization of agriculture, the Stakhanov movement, the historical achievements of Soviet science and technology were perceived, experienced and reflected in the public consciousness in the unity of its rational and emotional structures. Therefore, artistic culture could not but play an exceptionally important role in the spiritual development of socialist society. Never in the past and nowhere in the world have works of art had such a wide, such a massive, truly popular audience as in our country. This is eloquently evidenced by the attendance rates of theaters, concert halls, art museums and exhibitions, the development of the cinema network, book publishing and the use of library funds.

The official art of the 1930s and 1940s was upbeat and affirmative, even euphoric. The major type of art that Plato recommended for his ideal "State" was embodied in the real Soviet totalitarian society. Here one should bear in mind the tragic inconsistency that prevailed in the country in the pre-war period. In the public consciousness of the 1930s, faith in socialist ideals and the enormous prestige of the party began to be combined with "leaderism." Social cowardice, the fear of breaking out of the general ranks, has spread in broad sections of society. The essence of the class approach to social phenomena was reinforced by Stalin's personality cult. The principles of the class struggle were also reflected in the artistic life of the country.

In 1932, following the decision of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, a number of creative associations were disbanded in the country --- Proletkult, RAPP, VOAPP. And in April 1934, the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers opened. At the congress, the Secretary of the Central Committee for Ideology A.A. Zhdanov, who outlined the Bolshevik vision of artistic culture in a socialist society. "Socialist realism" was recommended as the "basic creative method" of Soviet culture. The new method prescribed to the artists both the content and the structural principles of the work, assuming the existence of a "new type of consciousness" that appeared as a result of the establishment of Marxism-Leninism. Socialist realism was recognized once and for all as the only true and most perfect creative method. Zhdanov's definition of social realism was based on Stalin's - to please the technical thinking of the era - the definition of writers as "engineers of human souls." Thus, artistic culture, art was given an instrumental character, or the role of an instrument for the formation of a “new man” was assigned.

However, the artistic practice of the 1930s and 1940s turned out to be much richer than the recommended party guidelines. In the pre-war period, the role of the historical novel noticeably increased, a deep interest in the history of the fatherland and in the most striking historical characters was manifested. Hence a whole series of the most serious historical works: “Kukhlya” by Y. Tynyanov, “Radishchev” by O. Forsh, “Emelyan Pugachev” by V. Shishkov, “Genghis Khan” by V. Yan, “Peter the First” by A. Tolstoy.

In the same years, Soviet children's literature flourished. Her great achievements were poems for children by V. Mayakovsky, S. Marshak, K. Chukovsky, S. Mikhalkov, stories by A. Gaidar, L. Kassil, V. Kaverin, fairy tales by A. Tolstoy, Yu. Olesha.

On the eve of the war in February 1937, the 100th anniversary of the death of A.S. In March 1940, the last part of M. Sholokhov's novel "Quiet Flows the Don" was published in the USSR.

From the first days of the Great Patriotic War, Soviet art devoted itself entirely to the cause of saving the Fatherland. Cultural figures fought with weapons in their hands on the fronts of the war, worked in the front-line press and propaganda teams.

Soviet poetry and song reached an extraordinary sound during this period. The song "Holy War" by V. Lebedev-Kumach and A. Aleksandrov became the true anthem of the people's war. In the form of an oath, crying, cursing, a direct appeal, the military lyrics of M. Isakovsky, S. Shchipachev, A. Tvardovsky, A. Akhmatova, A. Syrikov, N. Tikhonov, O. Berggolts, B. Pasternak, K. Simonov were created.

During the war years, one of the greatest works of the 20th century, D. Shostakovich's 7th symphony, was created. At one time, L. Beethoven liked to repeat the idea that music should strike fire from a courageous human heart. It was these thoughts that were embodied by D. Shostakovich in his most significant work. D. Shostakovich began to write the 7th Symphony a month after the start of the Great Patriotic War and continued his work in Leningrad besieged by the Nazis. Together with professors and students of the Leningrad Conservatory, he went out to dig trenches and, as a firefighter, lived in a barracks position in the building of the conservatory. On the original score of the symphony, the composer's notes "BT" are visible - meaning "air raid alert". When she advanced, D. Shostakovich interrupted work on the symphony and went to drop incendiary bombs from the roof of the conservatory.

The first three parts of the symphony were completed by the end of September 1941, when Leningrad was already surrounded and subjected to fierce artillery and air bombardment. The victorious finale of the symphony was completed in December, when the fascist hordes stood on the outskirts of Moscow. “I dedicate this symphony to my native city of Leningrad, our struggle against fascism, our future victory” - such was the epigraph to this work.

In 1942, the symphony was performed in the United States and in other countries of the anti-fascist coalition. The musical art of the whole world knows no other such work, which would receive such a powerful public response. “We are defending the freedom, honor and independence of our Motherland. We are fighting for our culture, for science, for art, for everything that we built and created,” D. Shostakovich wrote in those days.

During the war years, Soviet drama created genuine masterpieces of theatrical art. We are talking about the plays of L. Leonov "Invasion", K. Simonov "Russian people", A. Korneichuk "Front".

During the war years, the concerts of the Leningrad Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra under the direction of E. Mravinsky, the Song and Dance Ensemble of the Soviet Army under the direction of A. Alexandrov, the Russian Folk Choir. M. Pyatnitsky, Soloists K. Shulzhenko, L. Ruslanova, A. Raikin, L. Utesov, I. Kozlovsky, S. Lemeshev and many others.

In the post-war period, domestic culture continued the artistic development of the military theme. A. Fadeev's novel "The Young Guard" and "The Tale of a Real Man" by B. Polevoy are created on a documentary basis.

In the Soviet humanities of this period, new approaches to the study of social consciousness began to be developed. This is due to the fact that the Soviet people are beginning to get acquainted with the culture of other countries and to establish spiritual contacts with all continents.

4. Sociocultural situation in Russia in the 1960s and 1970s The artistic process of the 1960s and 1970s was distinguished by the intensity and dynamism of its development. He was closely connected with the well-known socio-political processes taking place in the country. It is not for nothing that this time is called the political and cultural "thaw". The rapid development of scientific and technological progress, which determined many socio-economic processes of this period, had a strong influence on the formation of the "thaw" culture. Ecological changes in nature, the migration of a large number of the population from the countryside to the city, the complication of life and life in modern cities have led to serious changes in the consciousness and morality of people, which has become the subject of depiction in artistic culture. In the prose of V. Shukshin, Y. Trifonov, V. Rasputin, Ch. Aitmatov, in the dramaturgy of A. Vampilov, V. Rozov, A. Volodin, in the poetry of V. Vysotsky, one can trace the desire to see the complex problems of time in everyday plots.

In the 60-70s, the theme of the Great Patriotic War sounded in a new way in prose and cinema. The works of art of those years not only more boldly revealed the conflicts and events of the past war, but also focused their attention on the fate of a single person in the war. The most truthful novels and films were written and directed by writers and directors who knew the war from personal experience. These are prose writers - V. Astafiev, V. Bykov, G. Baklanov, V. Kondratiev, film directors G. Chukhrai, S. Rostotsky.

The birth of the so-called "village prose" during the period of the "thaw" became a genuine phenomenon of Soviet culture. Its manifestation does not at all mean that the peasantry had special artistic needs, which differed significantly from the needs of other strata of Soviet society. The content of most of the works of V. Astafiev, V. Belov, F. Abramov, V. Rasputin and other "villagers" did not leave anyone indifferent, because speech in

they were about the problems of universal humankind.

Writers-"villagers" not only recorded profound changes in the consciousness and morality of the village man, but also showed the more dramatic side of these changes, which affected the change in the connection between generations, the transfer of spiritual experience of older generations to younger ones. Violation of the continuity of traditions led to the extinction of the old Russian villages with their centuries-old way of life, language, morality. A new way of rural life, close to the urban one, is coming to replace it. As a result, the fundamental concept of village life is changing - the concept of "home", in which since ancient times Russian people have invested the concept of "fatherland", "native land", "family". Through comprehension of the concept of “home”, a deep connection between colonies was also carried out. It was about this that F. Abramov wrote with pain in his novel "House", this problem is also devoted to the story of V. Rasputin "Farewell to Matera" and "Fire".

The problem of the relationship between man and nature, one of the most acute global problems of the 20th century, received its special artistic sound also in the 60s and 70s. The irrational use of natural resources, the pollution of rivers and lakes, and the destruction of forests were the gravest consequences of scientific and technological progress. The unresolved nature of these problems could not but affect the spiritual world of a person who has become a witness, and often a direct culprit, of the violation of the ecological balance in nature. Cruel, consumerist attitude to nature gave rise to heartlessness and lack of spirituality in people. The film-panorama of those years “By the Lake” by film director S. Gerasimov was primarily devoted to moral problems. The 1960s brought to Soviet society the phenomenon of A. Solzhenitsyn's prose. It was during this period that his stories “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” and “Matryona Dvor” appeared, which became classics of dissent of those years. The creation of the young studio theaters Sovremennik and Taganka was a real discovery of the theatrical culture of that time. A notable phenomenon in the artistic life of those years was the activity of the Novy Mir magazine under the direction of A. Tvardovsky.

In general, the artistic culture of the “thaw” managed to pose a number of pressing problems for Soviet society and tried to solve these problems in its works.

5. Soviet culture of the 1980s The 1980s were the time when artistic culture concentrated around the idea of ​​repentance. The motif of universal sin, the chopping block, forces artists to resort to such forms of artistic and figurative thinking as a parable, a myth, a symbol. In turn, having become acquainted with the novel "The Scaffold" by Ch. Aitmatov and the film "Repentance" by T. Abuladze, the reader and viewer argued, argued, developed their own civic position.

The most important feature of the artistic situation of the eighties is the emergence of a powerful stream of "returned" artistic culture. This culture was comprehended and understood from the same positions as the modern one, that is, created for the viewer, listener, reader of those years.

The culture of the eighties is distinguished by the emerging tendency to give a new concept of man and the world, where the universal humanistic is more significant than the socio-historical. In terms of the variety of creative styles, aesthetic concepts, addictions to one or another artistic tradition, the culture of the late 80s and early 90s resembles the beginning of the 20th century in Russian culture. Domestic culture, as it were, is picking up a failed natural moment in its development (quietly passed by Western European culture of the 20th century) and forcibly stopped by well-known socio-political events in our country.

Thus, the key problem of the artistic culture of the eighties, associated with the self-consciousness of the individual in its relationship with the world of nature and the world of people in stylistic terms, was marked by a movement from psychologism to journalism, and then to myth, synthesizing styles of different aesthetic orientations.

Due to the specifics of Russian history and, in particular, the presence in society of fundamentally different socio-economic structures and socio-cultural strata, it is, as a rule, very difficult to realize the need for transformations. Klyuchevsky emphasized that the peculiarity of countries lagging behind the advanced powers is that "the need for reforms is ripening before the people are ripe for reform." In Russia, the first to understand the need for reforms were the intelligentsia or individual members of the ruling elite, who experienced a certain influence of Western culture. However, due to the inertia of the vast majority of society and the alienation of state power, the ideas of reforms, as a rule, spread extremely slowly. This, in turn, often provoked their radical supporters into anti-government speeches or, at least, into propaganda. The suppression of these movements (for example, the Decembrists and Populists in the 19th century, dissidents in past decades) only provoked a backlash and delayed reforms.

At the same time, the idea of ​​the need for reforms gradually penetrated the minds of statesmen and it was the state that began the reforms. Hence, the position of the supreme power: kings, emperors, general secretaries, and now presidents, was of great, decisive importance for the fate of the transformations. Some of them were among the first who realized and started the reforms. This, of course, is Peter the Great, and partly Alexander I. However, the latter, perhaps, like his grandmother Catherine II, did not dare, like Peter I, to stake their own fate and start radical transformations, breaking the resistance and apathy of the ruling elite, yes and, to a large extent, the people.

ART OF THE 30S

1. General characteristics

Union of Artists

On April 23, 1932, the Central Committee of the party adopted a resolution "On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations”, which eliminated all artistic groups that existed in the 20s and created a single organization -Union of Artists of the USSR.

social realism method

On First All-Union CongressSoviet writers in 1934 A.M. Gorky defined "method of socialist realism”, implying the creative use of the classical heritage of world culture, the connection of art with modernity, the active participation of art in modern life, its image from the standpoint of “socialist humanism". Continuing the humanistic traditions of the previous art, combining them with the new,socialist content, "socialist realism" was supposed to bea new type of artistic consciousness.

official art

At the same time, it was assumed thatmeans of expression can be the most diverseeven in the interpretation of the same topic. So, anyway, it was said. In fact, it was for many decades to come.

officially authorized from above,

« ideologically sustained" (which is the main thing),

tending towards naturalismthe only possible direction in art, a kind of diamat in science,

prohibiting all dissentartistic consciousness,

at the same time with a clearly debuggedmechanism of state orders, planned (for artists, pleasing party)exhibitions and awards. (314)

The themes of art in all types and genres seemed to suggest diversity: fromheroics of the revolution And civil war before work days prompted and put forward by life itself. Portrait genre should have stayedone of the leading, because the realistic artalways and above allhuman research, his soul, his psychology.

Such was this prettyvague in words and really tough program. How she was embodied - showednext decade. Of course, the same theme can be developed and revealed in different ways, as

in pictures Petrov-Vodkin and Deineka,

landscapes Rylov and Nissky,

portraits Konchalovsky and Korina,

in graphics Lebedev and Konashevich,

in sculpture by Mukhina and Shadr,

as in the future, without deviating frombasic realistic principlesvisions of nature, artists of our time have worked and work differently:V. Popkov, Y. Krestovsky, V. Ivanov, V. Tyulenev, G. Egoshin and others (315)

Ideologization of art

But the "method of socialist realism", unanimously adopted at the congress "engineers of human souls» in 1934, completelydid not expect any freedom. On the contrary, artistic creativity is becoming more and more rigid.ideologized.As one researcher, V. Piskunov, wrote (the author spoke about poets, but this fully applies to artists), “in one strokebossy penentire generations were culledand periods", and justthe best of the masters"did not deign to get intosocialist realists". This should always be remembered when reading the national history of the Soviet period.

Art exhibitions

In the 1930s, great efforts were made to formnational art schools, to create multinational Soviet art". Decades national artand republican exhibitions, participation of representatives of different republics in thematic art exhibitions:

"15 years of the Red Army",

"20 years of the Red Army",

"The Industry of Socialism" (1937),

"The Best Works of Soviet Art" (1940),

in international exhibitions in Paris (1937) and New York (1939),

in the organization of the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition (1939 - 1940)

one of the forms of cultural communication between the peoples of the USSR in these years.

It was especially bigexhibition "Industry of socialism". More than 700 artists Moscow, Leningrad and other cities of the RSFSR and union republics; along with already mature masters at the exhibitionyouth debuted. The exhibited works were dedicated tothe best people in the country, drummers of the five-year plans, new buildings of the Soviet industry ", which later became aboutessential componentany large-scaleofficial exhibition.

Academy of Arts

In 1932, closed in the early years of the revolution were recreatedAll-Russian Academy of Arts and later - Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture.

trampling on democratic principles

It should be remembered that the 1930s were one of themost controversialand tragic periods both in the history of our state and in its culture and art.Trampling of humanistic democratic principlesin the life of society was reflected in the creative atmosphere. The basis of the foundations of the creative process was violated -artist's freedom of expression.

Art the role of "explainer"

Behind the increasingly rigid statementthe only style and way of life, with the exclusion from reality of any manifestation of freedom of choice, more and morea unified art form was also decreed. Since art was givenrole of "explainer"» directives in a visual form, it naturally turned into artillustrated and straightforward("understandable "), losing allcompleteness, complexity and versatilityexpressive means. (316)

Denying the right to freedom of the spirit

Despite the demagogicchanting of a simple worker- "builder of a bright future", denied the very human right

to the freedom of the spirit,

to your vision of the world,

finally, on doubt - necessary incentive to improvepersonality to creativity.

For what can be more detrimental to creativity than plantingdogmatically uniform forms of glorificationone unrighteously exalted above the many millions of peopleshape or multiple shapes, or one and false - ideas ? This led to the fact that the paths and fates of artistsmore and more dispersed.

Two Ways of Artists

Some, as it were - or in reality -sank into oblivion, others have become " leading artists of the era» 30s, the fate of some was silence, obscurity and tragic oblivion, the inevitable falsehood and Deliberate lies accompanied the glory of others.

official art

Countless works appeared, like paintings by V. Efanov and G. Shegal about “leader, teacher and friend”, “presiding” at congresses, countlessportraits of the "leader of the peoples". Falsely optimistically depicted the life of the village in large festive canvases

S. Gerasimov. Collective farm holiday. 1937

A. Plastov. Holiday in the village. 1937

All these and similar pictures were issuedfor the true "truth of life". They were full of that cheerfulness, which is even remotelydidn't match the truth, but Gorky is precisely “historical optimismconsidered one of the definingproperties of "socialist realism».

Falsification of history, humanistic ideas led to psychologicalbreakdown of the creative personality. And, in turn, the artist, creating false image , fake but builton the principles of visual verisimilitude, forced believe in himthat were full sincere (and in the 1930s, especially pronounced) desireto everyone's happinessworking humanity. I think this is the greatestSoviet tragedy. (317)

unofficial art

At the same time, in the art of the 30s, one can name quite a few names of artists who worked interestingly: Petrov-Vodkin, Konchalovsky, Saryan, Favorsky, Korin. The most important painting in Korin's life Rus' leaving » so it didn't happen", and the reason for this, as it seems to us, isartistic atmosphere those years.

In Leningrad since 1925 she workedschool-workshop Filonov. Under his leadership, the design of the famous edition was executed.Finnish epic "Kalevala"», scenery for "Inspector". But in the 30s the workshop is empty. The disciples leave the master. An exhibition of works by Filonov, prepared back in 1930 at the State Russian Museumnever opened. She was destined to take place only after 58 years.

2. Painting

BORIS VLADIMIROVICH IOGANSON (1893 - 1973)

Leading become other artists. Among them, the main place belongs to B.V. Ioganson (1893 - 1973), back in the 20s, who wrote such works as

Rabfak goes (Vuzovtsy). 1928

Soviet court. 1928

Junction railway station in 1919. 1928

who presented a painting at the 1933 exhibition "15 Years of the Red Army"

Interrogation of communists. 1933

and at the 1937 exhibition "Industry of Socialism" - a large canvas

At the old Ural factory. 1937

In both works, Ioganson seems to be strivingfollow traditions, laid down by Russian artists, primarilyRepin and Surikov. Indeed, the artist knows how to depict "conflict situations», push the characters. At general splendor» endless « collective farm holidays» and countless images «leader, teacher and friend" This already the dignity of a master. It affects primarilycompositional solution.

Conflict situations

In "Communist Interrogation"collision of two different forces, prisoners and enemies, in the "Ural Demidov" (the second name of the painting "At the old Ural factory") -worker and breeder, whose views, at the will of the artist, intersect just like the viewsred-bearded archer and Peterin Surikov's "Morning of the Streltsy Execution". Myself work process - Ioganson walked from descriptiveness, fragmentation, verbosity And congestioncompositions to a more concise and strict solution, where the entire dramatic conflict is built on a collisiontwo hostile worlds, is traditional. Evenreplacement of the location of the female figure- in search of a more typical situation from the first plan in the early version to the male one - in the final one (“Interrogation of the Communists”) is somewhat reminiscent ofsearch for a solution by Repin in "We Didn't Wait".

Big potentialcolor possibilitiesshown in these pictures, especiallyin the first, where the contrasts of chiaroscuro, sharp flashes of deep blue, brown-red, white enhancethe mood of the tragedy of what is happening. But in the end - a complete loss.

Inappropriate satire

For the artist changes simple taste because he refers to satire, caricature, so out of place in a painting.

If the communists- even in the hands of the enemyadvancing fearlessly on him;

if "White Guards"then certainly tantrums (upturned shoulder, disgustingly red nape, raised whip, etc.);

if the breeder hate his eyes, but not sure

if a worker full of superiority, dignity, anger and inner strength.

Falsity in Johanson's works

And all this is deliberateexcessive, overdone- and from this it loses its meaning andbecomes false. (Although there were actually many such people and such situations.)

as historical revolutionarycanvases by Brodsky,

How portraits of Ryazhsky,

these Johanson's worksexpressively illustratedevelopment of domestic artand it is in this sense (and not the traditional one) that one can really consider "classics of Soviet art».

ALEXANDER ALEKSANDROVICH DEINEKA (1899 1969)

In the 1930s, Deineka worked a lot.

laconic details,

silhouette expressiveness,

discreet linearand color rhythm

main principles of his art. Former "Ostovtsy" remaintrue to their traditions. The subject matter is becoming more diverse.genre, portrait, landscape. But no matter what they write, signs of the times appear in everything.

For the exhibition "20 Years of the Red Army" Deineka wrote one of the most poetic and romantic works.

Future pilots. 1938

three nude boyish figures(depicted from the back), on the seashore, lookingon a hydroplane in the blue sky, its future conquerors. This romanticismexpressive and colorful- combination

dark blue water

gray blue skies,

sunlight flooding the embankment.

Viewer the faces of the boys are not visible, but the whole system of the picture conveys the feelingthirst for life, spiritual openness. Many paintings by Deineka of these yearsdedicated to sports.

Deineka's watercolors

The many-sided world of Europe and the New World has opened in his watercolors written by him after a trip abroad in 1935:

Tuileries. 1935

Street in Rome. 1935

and others, of course, from the "position" of a Soviet person who has "his own pride."

Officially recognized artists created an illusory image of a jubilantfestive life of the 30s, so untrue. So, the feeling of a new life under construction is conveyed by Yu. Pimenov in the picture

Y. Pimenov. New Moscow. 1937

Impressionist tendenciesare vividly felt in immediacy

impression, skillfully conveyed as iffrom the point of view of a woman driving, in the wealth of light and air, in composition dynamism. In the bright festive scalealso highlightsimage of new Moscow.

Remarkable artists

During these years, suchwonderful artists, as N. Krymov (1884-1958), A. Kuprin , each of which, with its own individual means, createdepic majestic image of the Motherland

A. Kuprin. River. 1929

A. Kuprin. Summer day in Tarusa. 1939/40

A. Kuprin. Tiam Valley. 1937

Picturesquely generous, romantic many Crimean and Central Russian landscapes A. Lentulova , full of life and his still lifes

A. Lentulov. Still life with cabbage. 1940

marvel cheerfulness of many worksartists in these terrible years. (320)

With the whole pictorial and plastic structure of the canvas, he sought to expressthe spirit of modernity, tense rhythms new life G. Nyssky , depicting battleships standing in the roadstead, sailboats flying in the open sea, lines of railway tracks going into the distance

G. Nissky. On the way. 1933

It can be said that, in comparison with the 20s, in the 30s the geographiclandscape as a genre. The artists are coming to the Urals, to Siberia, on Far North, to Crimea. Motherland - this vast territory of a multinational state - givesrich impressions for painters, in the landscapes of which one idea prevails:the nature of our country, presented by the masters in all its generosity and whimsical variability of lighting at different times of the day and year, is not just a symbol of the beauty of the native land, but also time symbol one way or another, it is renewed by the labor of millions of people. The artists of the national republics lovingly capture the signs of the new in their country.

MARTIROS SERGEYEVICH SARYAN

M. Saryan paints beautiful landscapes, portraits

Portrait of architect A. Tamanyan

Portrait of the poet A. Isahakyan

and still lifes. Green valleys, dazzling snowy mountains of Armenia, its ancient temples and new construction sites invading its harsh landscapes

Alaverdi copper smelter. 1935

Vintage. 1937

Flowers and fruits. 1939

magnificent, illuminated by the bright talent of a born painter, his amazing decorative generosity.

Landscapes testify to the new face of ArmeniaG. Gyurtszhyan, F. Terlemezyan, the image of the new Georgia is given in the canvasesA. Tsimakuridze, V. Japaridze, E. Akhvlediani.

PETER PETROVICH KONCHALOVSKY

The portrait developed intensively in the 1930s. P.P. Konchalovsky wrote a whole series of beautiful portraits of cultural figures:

V. Sofronitsky at the piano. 1932

Portrait of S. Prokofiev. 1934

Portrait of V. Meyerhold. 1938

In the latter, as always with Konchalovsky,color open, sonorous, but it is given in contrast toMeyerhold's intense gazeand his posture, which brings something to the image disturbing . This is not surprising: before his arrest and deathfew days left. (321)

MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH NESTEROV

After almost 15 years of silenceM. Nesterov made a number of portraits of the Soviet intelligentsia

Portrait of artists P.D. and A.D. Korinykh. 1930

Portrait of I.P. Pavlova. 1935

Portrait of a surgeon Yudin. 1935

Portrait of V.I. Mukhina. 1940

Whoever portrayed Nesterov,

be it Pavlov with his youthful enthusiasm, strong-willed, collected, inspired, concise andexpressive hand gesturewhich only sharper emphasizes his irrepressible, dynamic, "explosive" nature;

sculptor Shadr standing in deep thoughtat the giant marble torso;

surgeon Lee Yudin

or artist Kruglikova, -

He emphasizes first of all that these people are creators and the meaning of their life is increative pursuitsin art or science. In the portraits of Nesterov there areclassical measure, simplicity and clarity, they are performed in the best traditionsRussian painting, primarily V.A. Serov.

PAVEL DMITRIEVICH KORIN (1892-1971)

Nesterov’s student P. D. Korin (1892-1971) walks along the path of Nesterov in the portrait, he also emphasizesintelligence, human complexity, but his writing style is different,

the shape is tougher, clearer,

sharper silhouette,

more expressive drawing

harsher color.

K. Magalashvili

Interest in the creative intelligentsia as early as the 1920s was also shown byGeorgian artist K. Magalashvili

Portrait of the sculptor Y. Nikoladze, 1922,

Portrait of the painter Elena Akhvlediani, 1924,

Portrait of a pianist and. Orbeliani, 1925

In 1941 she writes

Portrait of the pianist V. Kuftina. 1941

S. Salamzade

Azerbaijani artist S. Salam-zade chooses the appearance of a working man as his theme

S. Salmzade. Portrait of cotton ginner Mayush Kerimova. 1938

3. Monumental painting

monumental art

The 30s were a certain stage in the developmentall types of monumental art. (322)

Opening All-Union Agricultural Exhibition,

Moscow Canal,

construction subway in the capital,

clubs, palaces of culture, theaters, sanatoriums etc.,

participation of Soviet artists ininternational exhibitionsbrought to life many works

monumental sculpture,

monumental painting,

arts and crafts.

The artists of Moscow, Leningrad, other cities of the RSFSR and the national republics, who preserved and creatively reworked the traditions and forms of national art, considered the mainproblems of art synthesis.

monumental painting

In monumental painting, the leading place belongs toA.A. Deineke, E.E Lansere.The latter was formed as an artist even before the revolution. In the 1930s he performed

murals in Kharkov, Tbilisi.

Painting of the restaurant hall of the Kazansky railway station in Moscow

Devoted to friendship and unity of peoples, talks about country's natural wealth.

Painting of the restaurant hall of the hotel "Moscow"

based on traditionItalian illusory plafond painting, especially the Venetian Tiepolo.

Monumental painting in the same years was alsoV. Favorsky, A. Goncharov, L. Bruni. In painting

Favorsky. Painting at the House of Models in Moscow. 1935 (graffito, not preserved)

Favorsky achievedsynthesis of architecture and paintingThis work had a huge impact on his students.

4. Sculpture

4.1 Monuments

Worked a lot in sculptureand old masters, who declared themselves in the early years of Soviet power, and young . It should be noted that in the 30s in all types and genres of sculpture - inportrait, statuary composition, relief- became noticeable gravitation towards idealization of nature. This was especially true in the monumental sculpture presented in competitions for numerous monuments. (323)

MATVEY GENRIKHOVICH MANIZER (1891 1966)

It is significant that incompetition for a monument to Chapaev(for the city of Samara) and Shevchenko (for Kharkov), the winner was M. Manizer, successoracademic schoolRussian sculpture with its attraction tonarrative and idealization.

Monument to V. I. Chapaev. Samara. 1932

Monument to T.G. Shevchenko. Kharkiv. 1935

In the monument to Shevchenko, Manizer presented the poet primarily as a wrestler,accuser of autocracy.

This idea is strengthened by the fact that his figure is opposedsad image of a farm worker, conditionally named later by the name of the heroine of his poem "Katerina"

Katerina.

(one of the 16 figures representing "stages of the struggle of the Ukrainian peoplefor your release." The monument is calculatedfor a round tripand placed at the entrance to the park (the author of the pedestal, architect I. Langbard).

In 1936-1939, Manizer executed (together with his students) a number of statues for the station of MoscowMetro "Ploshchad Revolyutsii"". This work can hardly be called successful, which was aggravated by the fact thatlimited space, low arches interfere with organic synthesisarchitecture and sculpture.

Lyrical sculpture

In the sculpture of a lyrical plan, skillfully modeled, deeply poetic, continues to work A. T. Matveev . Wonderful portrait works are created by Y. Nikoladze

I. Nikoladze. Portrait of G. Tabidze. 1939

I. Nikoladze. Bust of I. Chavchavadze. 1938

Subtle psychological or poignant images- in portrait sculpture S. Lebedeva

S. Lebedeva. Portrait of V. Chkalov. 1937 (Study, bronze)

On an independent creative path enter these yearsyoung sculptors. For them, problems are also paramount.synthesis of sculpture and architecture.

VERA IGNATIEVNA MUKHINA (1889 1853)

Of great importance for the development of Soviet monumental sculpture was the participation of the USSR ininternational exhibition"Art, Technology and Modern Life", hosted in Paris.Soviet pavilion was built according to project B.M. Iofana. sculptural group for him made V.I. Mukhina.

Back in 1922 - 1923, according to the plan of monumental propaganda, she performed a full passionate,violent movement figure, representing " the flame of revolution." (324)

Peasant woman. 1927

In 1927 she createdeasel sculpture of a peasant woman,

weighted and tightly knitted volumes,

laconic, expressive plasticity

which testify to the constant interest inmonumental generalized image.

In the portraits of the 1930s, she found a completely modern language of realistic sculpture based on classical models.

Dr. A. A. Zamkov. 1935

Architect S.A. Castles. 1935

But most of all, the masters are interestedprinciples of synthesis of architecture and sculpture.

Worker and collective farmer. 1937

One of the original solutions was given by Mukhina in her work for the International Exhibition. Iofan building ended with a gigantic, raised33 m up with a pylonwhich is perfectly organiccrowned by a sculptural group.

They keep at arm's lengthup hand hammer and sickle. It was hard to find moreone-stop solutionthis topic than Mukhina found. From the sculptural group comesmighty movement, which creates a rapidrush of figures forward and upward. Expressively interpretedfolds of clothes and scarf. Ease, silver luster stainless steel, in which the sculpture is made, further enhancedynamic impression. Innovative sculptor Mukhina managed to embody in this workthe ideal of an era.

Working with Iofan

Mukhina's collaboration witharchitect Iofanled to the artistic unity of a simple,constructive-holistic architecture and plastically rich, laconic, complete sculptural forms. Moreover, the role of sculpture is prevalent here. Building,lined with marblewith stainless steel rods, in fact, only a pedestal for her, sculpture naturally completedvertical architectural rhythms, gave the building architectural perfection.This is one of the mostexpressive monuments, performed in accordance with the once conceived "plan of monumental propaganda". Delivered now on a low pedestal, He lost all its monumentality. (325)

decorative sculpture

During these years, the sculptor works a lotdecorative sculpture, and also completes Shadr's work on what he started in the 1930s

Shadr. Monument to A.M. Gorky. 1951

installed in Moscow in front of the Belorussky railway station.

4.2 Animal sculpture

VASILY ALEKSEEVICH VATAGIN (1883 1969)

In the 1930s, animalistic sculpture developed in an interesting way, where the names of two masters undoubtedly stand out - V. Vatagina who knows perfectly well not only the features, but also the psychology of animals, works a lot

in a tree

Himalayan bear. 1925

and bronze

Tiger. 1925

IVAN SEMENOVICH EFIMOV (1878 1959)

and I. Efimov, who performed his works ina wide variety of materials more generalized, decorativethan Vatagin, and the endowing beastfeatures of anthropomorphism

Cat with a ball. 1935 (porcelain)

Rooster. 1932 (wrought copper).

The most precious part of the creativity of both - their drawings.

5. Graphics

5.1 Book illustration

Vladimir Andreevich Favorsky (1886 1964)

In the schedule of these years, the leading place continues to be occupied bybook illustrators. V.A. Favorsky , who himself works very intensively - woodcuts

Illustrations for "The Tale of Igor's Campaign",

Illustrations for "Vita Nova" by Dante,

Illustrations for Shakespeare's Hamlet

leads a whole school of graphics. (326)

A. Goncharov with highly professional, deeply penetratingillustrations for Smolett and Shakespeareserves special attention among his students. In general, however, woodcut is pushed back tosecond plan lithograph, as well as drawing -charcoal and black watercolor.

Leningrad school

In the 1930s, a new leg was introduced into the art of woodcutsLeningrad school, in which there is more grace coming from"World of Art" traditions. These are the works of L. Khizhinsky who started his career in Ukraine,G. Epifanova, N. Vanderfleet, S. Mochalov, N. Alekseev, who died early . Masters of easel graphics, singers of the elegiac watercolor landscape wereV. Pakulin and N. Tyrsa, the rhythms of the new, industrial Leningrad capturewatercolors by N. Lapshin.

Georgy Semenovich Vereisky (1886 1962)

Since the mid-30s, he has been working almost exclusively in the technique of etching and lithography. G. Vereisky (more than 50 times he depictedactor V.P. Ershovseeking depthpsychological characteristics).

Konstantin Ivanovich Rudakov (1891 1949)

In the most various techniques and genresworked as a brilliant draftsman K. Rudakov (illustrations to Zola and Maupassant, easel graphic images of the life of Western Europe,portraits of contemporaries)

Portrait of the artist I.K. Wheel. 1936 (aqua.)

Dementy Alekseevich Shmarinov (1907 1995)

A galaxy of young graphic artists performs with illustrations for Russian and Soviet classics. D. Shmarinov , a student of D. Kardovsky, makes full severe,tragic feeling

Illustrations for "Crime and Punishment" by Dostoevsky. 1935 - 1936

beautiful and simple drawings

Drawings for Belkin's Tales. 1937

A series of drawings for "Peter I » A. Tolstoy. 1940

Illustrations for "A Hero of Our Time" by M.Yu. Lermontov. 1939 - 1940

Drawings for "Peter I ”, in fact, entire historical compositions with vivid characters, with an excellent transfer in a sketchy manner of thethe spirit of the Peter's era. Shmarinov avoided many everyday details to give the series a high epic style. (327)

Evgeny Adolfovich Kibrik (1906 - 1978)

E.A. Kibrik (1906 - 1978) performs full of captivating simplicity and subtle feeling of the Gallic spirit

Illustrations for "Cola Breugnon". 1936

Illustrations for The Legend of Ulenspiegel by Charles de Coster. 1938

Kibrik later wrote: “All my life I have strived to embody one image. This is an imagekind, brave, funny person. He loves life and people. He fights evil. To him want to imitate. This image appeared in my worknow in the face of a Burgundian, now a Fleming, now a Ukrainian, now a Russian» (4, p. 15). (328)

Sergei Vasilyevich Gerasimov (1885 1964)

S.V. Gerasimov in black watercolorscreates temperamental and strong characters of heroes

Illustrations for the story "The Artamonov Case" by A.M. Gorky. 1938 1939

Kukryniksy

Kukryniksy (union of three artists -M.V. Kupriyanova, P.N. Krylova, N.A. Sokolova), back in the 20s, declared themselves assatirical artists, illustrate mostly satirical works

Illustrations for "Gentlemen Golovlev" by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin

or individual (satirical) episodes in literary works

Illustrations for "Klim Samghin" by M. Gorky

Detgiz

Leningrad artistsK.I. Rudakov, N.A. Tyrsa are working onWestern and Russian classics, V.V. Lebedev and E.I. Charushin -over children's literature, keeping each its own creative face. Around Detgiz, headed by V. Lebedev, a whole group of remarkableLeningrad chartshigh culture: Yu. Vasnetsov, V. Kurdov, V. Konashevich and many others.

"Pushkiniana"

The 100th anniversary of Pushkin's death in 1937 brought to life a whole " Pushkinian »

drawings and watercolors N. Ulyanova dedicated to Pushkin's places,

series by L. Khizhinsky,

lithographs P. Schillingovsky

"What a great happinessthat Russia has Pushkin. All our lives he shines over us,like the never setting sun!" - later wrote an outstanding schedule, a master of sharp drawing N. Kuzmin , who illustrated "Eugene Onegin" in the "Pushkin manner" (5, p. 50).

national literature

Interest in national classical literature is ubiquitous. Gained widespread fameillustrations by S. Kobuladze

S. Kobuladze. Illustrations for Shota Rustaveli's poem "The Knight in the Panther's Skin". 1935 1937

Sublime elation of heroic characters achieved

coinage plastic form,

the consistency of the composition,

almost sculptural tangibilityin the transfer of entourage,

selection of the main in him.

Cycle of gouaches dedicated to David of Sasun, performed by E. Kochar (1939).

6. Architecture

Competition for the Building of the Palace of Soviets in Moscow

Many famous architects (Br. Vesnin, M. Gelfreich, B. Iofan, M. Ginzburg, even ch.-e. Corbusier) participated incompetition for the building of the PalaceSoviets in Moscow. Wonmulti-storey building project surrounded by columns, with statue of V.I. Lenin upstairs. So cubist mausoleumcould be in close proximity togigantic structure, claiming some underbeat classical architecture. But the project was not destined to come true.

Pavilions at VSH

The rivalry between constructivism and a certainlikeness of classicismobserved in the architecture of the 30s with a clear predominance of the latter by the end of the decade. In 1937 - 1939, at the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition,personifying republicshuge pavilions inpseudo-national spirit.

Moscow subway

Since the mid-1930s, they have been buildingthe first stations of the Moscow metro

With luxurious interior decoration(mosaic, sculpture, grisaille, fresco, stained glass, various types of marble, bronze lamps and gratings, etc.)

and overloaded Sovietsymbolism of the sickle, hammer

And five pointed stars decor.

Stalinist Empire

pomposity, excessive pomp, sometimes even at the expense of convenienceand common sense

huge colonnades,

towers with spiersrichly decoratedridiculous sculpture, in which the forms that claim to be classic are executed as if barbarian's hand

giant spans-arches of the gate, disproportionate to a person, which in itself already violates the laws of architectonics, coming from classical art

firmly establishedat a later timeand were subjected tocriticism only by the end of the 50s. But the apt ironic name still holds among the people"Stalin Empire".

Book: Lecture Notes World History of the 20th Century

32. Art of the 20-30s

Basic ideas and directions in the development of art. Painting. In the interwar period, new trends and directions appeared in art, and old ones developed. Before the First World War, realism dominated European visual arts. The world then seemed worthy of its realistic depiction. The personality of the artist, his tastes and preferences could be in the choice of genre, composition, in the preference of form or color.

The First World War and post-war instability led to the fact that the world lost its harmony and rationality in the eyes of artists, its realistic reflection seemed to lose its meaning. There has been a change in the understanding of the artist. It consisted not in an adequate reflection of the world, but in the identification by the artist of his vision of the world. And such an understanding of the world could rise, for example, to a certain ratio of lines and geometric figures. This type of painting is called abstractionism. Its founder was the Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky. Surrealists (surrealism in French means suprarealism), led by Salvador Dali, tried to depict an irrational world. In their paintings, unlike the paintings of abstract artists, there are objects, they can be known, but sometimes they look strange and are in unusual compositions, like in dreams.

One of the new trends in literature and art was avant-garde. Avant-gardism is a conventional name for many anti-realistic movements in literature and art of the 20th century. It arose on the basis of an anarchic, subjective worldview. Hence the break with the previous realistic tradition, the formalistic search for new means of artistic expression. The forerunners of avant-garde were the modernist trends of the first third of the 20th century. - Fauvism, cubism, futurism, surrealism and dodecaphony in music. Among the representatives of avant-gardism and neo-avant-gardism are the artists P. Mondrian, SDali, writers R. Desnos, A. Arto, S. Beckett, composers S. Bussoty, J. Keydogs.

Modernism is the main direction of art of the era of the 20-30s, characterized by a break with the ideological and artistic principles of classical art. It originated in the 20-30s of the XX century, embraced all types of creativity. Modernist artists E.Kirchner, D.Ensor, E.Munk, E.Nolde, V.Kandinsky, P.Kleje, O.Kokoschka suggested intuitionism and automatism in the creative process - the use of the physical properties of geometric shapes and colors, the rejection of the illusions of space , deformation of objects in the image of symbols, subjectivity in content.

Realism is one of the main properties of art and literature, which consists in the desire for a truthful objective reflection and reproduction of reality in forms that correspond to it. In a narrower sense - a trend in art that opposed modernism and avant-garde in the interwar period of the 20th century. its representatives were, in particular, the artists F. Maserel (Belgium), Fougeres and Taslitsky (France), r. Guttuso (Italy), G. Erni (Switzerland).

Theater. Significant success was achieved in the field of theatrical art and cinema. This applies primarily to the countries of Western Europe and the United States. The development of theatrical art in the United States was quite complete. Theaters were founded here, in which directors G.Clerman, E.Kazan, L.Starsberg, R.Mamu-lyan, actors - K.Cornell, J.Barrymore, H.Hayes, E.Le Gallienne worked. The repertoire included plays by young American playwrights K. Odets, "Yu.o" Nile, J. Lawson, A. Malzi and others.

Movie. Film production in the USA begins in 1896, and since 1908 has been concentrated in Hollywood. An outstanding figure in American cinema in those years was director DW Griffith, who laid the foundations of cinema as an independent art in his historical films. This was facilitated by the activities of directors T.Kh.Ins, who laid the foundation for fi-lmi-westerns, and M. Sennett, marked by a high professional culture. Charlie Chaplin became the greatest master of comedy. Popular stars of the 20-30s - M.Pikford, D.Fairbanks, R.Valentino, G.Garbo, L.Hirsh, B.Kiton, K.Gable, F.Astor, G.Cooper, H.Bogart. At this time, W. Disney developed the foundations of the animated film. It should be noted that among the films there were those that raised intellectual problems, for example, "Citizen Kane" (1941 p., directed by O. Welles).

In the USSR, the development of cinematography took place in the same direction as in other countries, but had its own characteristics associated with the existence of a totalitarian state. In the 1920s and 1930s, the films "Battleship Potemkin", "Chapaev" were made by the outstanding directors Eisenstein, A. Dovzhenko and others.

In other parts of the world, cinematography was in its infancy, but theatrical art was actively developing. The exception was India, where the first film was shot back in 1913. In the 30s, the films "Alam Ara" directed by Irane, "Devdas" directed by Barua were released here.

Architecture. In the art of the 20-30s, an intensive search for an answer to the question of the role and place of man in society, the principles of its interaction with the environment and the future of mankind continued. The French architect Le Corbusier considered architecture as an integral part of social progress and preferred the development of comfortable residential buildings and complexes, supported the need for serial design and industrialization of construction. With the help of architecture, architects tried to eliminate the existing injustice and improve society. There was an idea to disperse the population of large cities in satellite cities, to create a "garden city". Similar projects were carried out in England, France, Holland. In various forms, the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of human habitation and nature was implemented in the USA, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Sweden and other countries. it was picked up in the USSR, but at the same time they emasculated the essence, reducing it to propaganda slogans. "I know - the city will be, I know - the garden will bloom when there are such people in the Soviet country!" - the poet V. Mayakovsky wrote in 1929 about the development of the city of Kuznetskaya. However, mining and metallurgical industries still prevail there, and public infrastructure remains weak.

In countries with a totalitarian regime, they tried to impose on art the ideas of the superiority of one social system over another, to instill symbols of eternity and inviolability of the existing government, which cares about the well-being of the people and their spiritual purity. The architecture and sculpture of Germany and Italy embodied the ideas of unquestioning obedience, national and racial superiority, cultivated strength and rudeness. In the USSR, they supported those artists who were able to more clearly and convincingly show the pathos of socialist construction and the merits of the Bolshevik Party and its leaders in it. For a long time, V. Mukhinoi's sculptural group "Worker and Collective Farm Woman", created specifically for the World Exhibition of 1937 in Paris, was called an outstanding phenomenon of international artistic culture.

1.	Lecture notes World history of the twentieth century
2.	2. World War I
3.	3. Revolutionary events in the Russian Empire in 1917 Bolshevik coup
4.	4. The revolutionary movement in Europe in 1918-1923.
5.	5. Establishment of the Bolshevik dictatorship. National liberation movement and civil war in Russia
6.	6. Formation of the foundations of the post-war world. Versailles-Washington system
7.	7. Attempts to revise post-war treaties in the 20s
8.	8. The main ideological and political currents of the first half of the 20th century.
9.	9. National liberation movements
10.	10. Stabilization and "prosperity" in Europe and the USA in the 20s
11.	11. World economic crisis (1929-1933)
12.	12. "New Deal" F. Roosevelt
13.	13. Great Britain in the 30s. Economic crisis. "National Government"
14.	14. Popular Front in France
15.	15. The establishment of the Nazi dictatorship in Germany. A. hitler
16.	16. Fascist Dictatorship b. Mussolini in Italy
17.	17. Revolution of 1931 in Spain.
18.	18. Czechoslovakia in the 20-30s
19.	19. Countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe in the 20-30s
20.	20. Proclamation of the USSR and the establishment of the Stalinist regime
21.	21. Soviet modernization of the USSR
22.	22. Japan between the two world wars
23.	23. National revolution in China. Chiang Kai-shek. Domestic and foreign policy of the Kuomintang
24.	24. Civil war in China. Proclamation of the People's Republic of China
25.	25. India in the 20-30s
26.	26. National movements and revolutions in Arab countries, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan. The origin of the Palestinian problem. K.Ataturk, Rezakhan
27.	27. National movements in the countries of Swedish-East Asia (Burma, Indochina, Indonesia)
28.	28. Africa between the two world wars
29.	29. Development of Latin American countries in the 20-30s
30.	30. Education, science and technology
31.	31. Development of literature in the 20-30s
32.	32. Art of the 20-30s
33.	33. Formation of centers of the Second World War. Creation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo bloc
34.	34. The policy of "appeasement" of the aggressor
35.	35. USSR in the system of international relations
36.	36. Causes, character, periodization of the Second World War
37.	37. German attack on Poland and the beginning of World War II. Fighting in Europe in 1939-1941.
38.	38. The attack of Nazi Germany on the USSR. Defensive battles in summer-autumn 1941 Battle for Moscow
39.	39. Military operations on the Eastern Front in 1942-1943. A turning point during the Second World War. Liberation of the territory of the USSR
40.	40. The formation of the anti-Hitler coalition. International relations during the Second World War
41.	41. The situation in the warring and occupied countries. Resistance movement in Europe and Asia during the Second World War
42.	42. The main events of the Second World War in Africa, in the Pacific Ocean (1940-1945)
43.	43. Liberation of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (1944-1945)
44.	44. The landing of allied troops in Normandy. Liberation of the countries of Western Europe. Capitulation of Germany and Japan
45.	45. Results of World War II
46.	46. ​​Creation of the United Nations
47.	47. Signing of peace treaties. Occupation policy of Germany and Japan. Nuremberg and Tokyo trials
48.	48. The Marshall Plan and its importance for the reconstruction of Europe
49.	49. The main trends in the socio-economic and political development of Western countries in 1945-1998.
50.	50. United States of America
51.	51. Canada
52.	52. Great Britain
53.	53. France
54.	54. Germany
55.

Vladimir

Question 1 Situation in the field of culture and education One of the most important tasks facing the society was the implementation of cardinal changes in the field of culture and education. Due to the fact that the majority of the population of Ukraine did not know how to read and write, effective measures were taken to eliminate mass illiteracy. In 1921, the All-Ukrainian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Illiteracy was created. Thanks to her efforts, by 1927, 2 million people in Ukraine had learned to read and write. In the 1928/1929 school year, the number of students in schools increased to 2.6 million, although almost a third of the children of school age did not attend school. But already in the 1932/1933 academic year in Ukraine there were 21.7 thousand schools with 4.5 million students. In 1934, three types of general education schools were established: elementary (four-year course of study), incomplete secondary (seven-year), and secondary (ten-year). At the same time, the transition to compulsory universal primary education was completed, and in the cities - universal seven-year education. By the end of the 30s. illiteracy among the adult population was largely eliminated. A significant shortcoming in the development of public education was that in the teaching environment of the 30s. there were still few trained specialists, people with higher education. Almost a third of teachers had incomplete secondary education. Even fewer teachers had special pedagogical education. 133 The formation of a new intelligentsia took place at a rapid pace. Higher and secondary educational institutions played the main role in this process. If in the 1914-1915 academic year in Ukraine there were 88 secondary specialized educational institutions, in which 12.5 thousand students studied, then in the 1940-1941 academic year there were already 693 of them, and the number of students in them increased to 196.3 thousand. Human. The mass educational campaign was conducted in Ukrainian. Thanks to the activities of the People's Commissar for Education N. Skrypnyk, more than 80% of general education schools and 30% of higher educational institutions taught exclusively in Ukrainian. The Ukrainian press experienced a similar revival. By 1927, more than half of the books in the republic were printed in Ukrainian, and in 1933, out of 426 republican newspapers, 373 were published in Ukrainian. In Ukrainian literature of the 20s. combined democratic and revolutionary traditions. At this time, a bright revolutionary-romantic trend was formed, which was represented by P. Tychina, V. Chumak, V. Sosiura, N. Bazhan. Representatives of other creative movements - M. Rylsky, P. Filippovich and others - were active in the literary life. .Dneprovsky, A.Golovko. A characteristic feature of the literary process in Ukraine in the 20s. there was the emergence and collapse of many literary organizations, such as "Garth", "Plow", "Vanguard", "Youth", "New Generation" and others. In 1925, the Free Academy of Proletarian Literature (VAPLITE) arose, the ideological leader of which was N. Khvyleva. All this testified to the real revival of Ukrainian literature and culture in general. However, the literary process was negatively affected by the substitution of universal human values ​​for class values, which led to the ideologization of all art. And in the end - to the baseless accusations of many artists in "nationalism". N. Khvylevoy was one of the first to be at the center of this campaign. In the 20s. in Ukraine, the formation of the Ukrainian Soviet theater was intensively taking place, associated with the work of such masters of the stage as L. Kurbas, G. Yura, and others. and young artists - A. Petrytsky, V. Kasiyan, sculptor M. Lysenko and others. The first and immediately noticeable steps were made by Ukrainian cinematography. In 1928, the first film by A. Dovzhenko "Zvenigora" was released.

An important component of the cultural and political processes in Ukraine in the 20-30s was the policy of indigenization, proclaimed by the XII Congress of the RCP (b). In Ukraine, this distal policy is called "Ukrainization". The policy of indigenization ("Ukrainization") was due to many external and internal reasons: 1. Formation in the international arena of an attractive image of the USSR as a state in which the harmonious and free development of the Soviet republic is supposedly ensured, the free development of national minorities is guaranteed. 2. The need to achieve a kind of compromise with the peasantry (the bulk of the national republics were the peasantry) and the national intelligentsia through the liberalization of national relations. 3. An attempt by the Bolshevik party to expand the social base of its system, involving representatives of non-Russian peoples in the parties and in the administration of the republic % of communists considered Ukrainian as their native language, and only 2% spoke it]. 4. An attempt by the Soviet leadership to lead and put under control the process of national revival of the outskirts, so that it does not result in an anti-central trend. 5. The need to strengthen the newly formed state formation - the USSR, granting the rights of "cultural-national autonomy" to at least partially compensate the republics for the loss of their political sovereignty, etc. In the practical implementation of "Ukrainization" in Ukraine, the following can be distinguished consequences: 1. Removal from power of the outspoken chauvinists of the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (b) U. E. Kviring and the second secretary D. Lebed, who proclaimed the theory of the struggle of two cultures, progressive, revolutionary, urban Russian and counter-revolutionary, backward rural Ukrainian culture. In their struggle, Ukrainian culture must retreat and perish. 2. Expansion of the scope of the use of the Ukrainian language in public life. [Since August 1923 Ukrainian language courses have been organized for government officials and party functionaries. Those who did not pass them and did not pass the exam risked losing their position. Since 1925, the obligatory use of the Ukrainian language in state office work was introduced. Since 1927 party documentation has been translated into Ukrainian]. 3. The number of Ukrainians in the party and state apparatus is growing. So, in 1923 their share was 25-35%, and in 1927 - 52-54%. In terms of quantitative growth, there were important structural changes. One of them was the emergence of a new state-political, economic and cultural elite, the backbone of which was the so-called national communists, people from the former Ukrainian left parties. 4. "Ukrainization" had the greatest impact on the development of national education. It coincided in time with the deployment by the Bolsheviks of the so-called cultural revolution, one of the main directions of which was the elimination of illiteracy. In 1930, compulsory primary education began to be introduced in Ukraine. In 1927, 97% of Ukrainian children studied in Ukrainian. This indicator was never surpassed during the years of Soviet power (in 1990 it was only 47.9%). The growth of the network of Ukrainian-language educational institutions went in parallel with the development of scientific research in various fields of Ukrainian studies. 5. The number of Ukrainian press increased sharply (in 1933 it accounted for 89% of the total circulation of newspapers in the republic). 6. Ukrainian-language stationary theaters in 1931 accounted for 3/4 of all theaters in Ukraine; in 1927/29, the largest film studio in Europe at that time was built in Kyiv. 7. The city began to lose its position as a citadel of Russian identity. 8. Diverse cultural and educational work was carried out among Ukrainians living compactly outside Ukraine (in 1925, 6.5 million Ukrainians lived outside Ukraine). 9. Much attention was paid to the development of national minorities in Ukraine. Thus, during 1925, 7 German, 4 Bulgarian, one Polish and one Jewish national regions were formed, as well as 954 rural councils of national minorities, 100 city councils. At present, there were 966 schools in Ukraine with German as the language of instruction, 342 with Hebrew, 31 with Tatar, etc., and in general, primary general education was carried out in more than 20 languages. It should be said that none of the republican "indigenizations" has gone as far as the Ukrainian one. During the ten years of "Ukrainization" (1923-1933), the Ukrainians turned into a structurally complete nation. However, in the early 1930s, "Ukrainization", which was rightly called the Ukrainian Renaissance, began to be gradually curtailed. The struggle against bourgeois nationalism begins, in the wake of this struggle, Khvyleva and N. Skrypnyk shot themselves (1933), which became a kind of signal for the end of "Ukrainization". The policy of "Ukrainization" was finally curtailed in 1938, when a resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the Ukrainian SSR was issued on the compulsory teaching of the Russian language in all non-Russian schools, which contributed to the process of Russification, and a resolution of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (b) U on the liquidation of national administrative-territorial formations, the so-called. d. So, the course proclaimed by the party towards "Ukrainization" and its consequences were of great importance. However, it would be a big mistake to consider it only the result of the purposeful efforts of the Bolshevik Party. It was previously a distant echo of the Ukrainian national revolution of 1917-1920. If the national communists acted as the leading cadres of the "Ukrainization" policy, then the huge army of performers consisted mainly of the Ukrainian intelligentsia, a significant part of which took part in the national liberation struggle. A special group among them were Ukrainian emigrants and immigrants from Galicia, who believed in the seriousness of the course towards "Ukrainization". In general, the course towards "Ukrainization" was a tactical step that did not correspond to the strategic plans of the Communist Party.

Art of the 20-30s

Basic ideas and directions in the development of art. Painting. In the interwar period, new trends and directions appeared in art, and old ones developed. Before the First World War, realism dominated European visual arts. The world then seemed worthy of its realistic depiction. The personality of the artist, his tastes and preferences could turn out to be in the choice of genre, composition, in the superiority of form or color.

The First World War and post-war instability led to the fact that the world lost its harmony and rationality in the eyes of artists, its realistic reflection seemed to lose its meaning. There has been a change in the understanding of the artist. It consisted not in an adequate reflection of the world, but in the identification by the artist of his vision of the world. And such an understanding of the world could arise, for example, to a certain ratio of lines and geometric shapes. This type of painting is called abstractionism. Its founder was the Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky. Surrealists (surrealism in French means supra-realism), led by Salvador Dali, tried to depict an irrational world. In their paintings, unlike the paintings of abstract artists, there are objects that can be known, but sometimes they look strange and are in unusual compositions, like in dreams.

One of the new trends in literature and art was avant-garde. Avant-gardism is a conventional name for many anti-realist movements in literature and art of the 20th century. It arose on the basis of an anarchic, subjective worldview. Hence the break with the previous realistic tradition, the formalistic search for new means of artistic expression. The forerunners of avant-garde were the modernist trends of the first third of the 20th century. fauvism, cubism, futurism, surrealism and dodecaphony in music. Among the representatives of avant-garde and neo-avant-gardism are artists P. Mondrian, passed, writers R. Desnos, A. Arto, S. Beckett, composers S. Bussoti, J. Keydogs.

Modernism is the main direction of art of the era of the 20-30s, characterized by a break with the ideological and artistic principles of classical art. It originated in the 20-30s of the XX century, embraced all types of creativity. Modernist artists E. Kirchner, D. Ensor, E. Munch, E. Nolde, Kandinsky, P. Klee, O. Kokoschka suggested intuitionism and automatism in the creative process - the use of the physical properties of geometric shapes and colors, the rejection of illusions of space, deformation objects in the image of symbols, subjectivism in the content.

Realism is one of the main properties of art and literature, which lies in the desire for truthful objective reflection and reproduction of reality in forms that correspond to it. In a narrower sense, a trend in art that opposed modernism and avant-garde in the interwar period of the XX century. its representatives were, in particular, the artists F. Maserel (Belgium), Fougeres and Taslitsky (France), R. Guttuso (Italy), G. Erni (Switzerland).

Theater. Significant successes have been achieved in the field of theatrical art and film art. This applies primarily to the countries of Western Europe and the United States. The development of theatrical art in the United States was quite complete. Theaters were founded here, in which directors G. Klerman, E. Kazan, L. Starsberg, R. Mamu-lyan, actors K. Cornell, J. Barrymore, H. Hayes, E. Le Gallienne worked. The repertoire included plays by young American playwrights K. Odets, Y. ONil, J. Lawson, A. Maltsy and others.

Movie. Film production in the United States begins in 1896, since 1908 it has been concentrated in Hollywood. An outstanding figure in American cinema in those years was director DW Griffith, who, in his historical films, laid the foundations of cinema as an independent art. This was facilitated by the activities of directors T.Kh. Charlie Chaplin became the greatest master of comedy. The most stars of the 20-30s M. Pickford, D. Fairbanks, R. Valentino, G. Garbo, L. Hirsch, B. Keaton, K. Gable, F. Astor, G. Cooper, H. Bogart. At this time, W. Disney developed the foundations of the animated film. It should be noted that among the films there were those that raised intellectual issues, for example, Citizen Kane (1941 p., Directed by O. Welles).

In the USSR, the development of cinematography took place in the same direction as in other countries, but had its own characteristics associated with the existence of a totalitarian state. In the 1920s and 1930s, films such as Battleship Potemkin and Chapaev were made, by outstanding directors Eisenstein, Dovzhenko and others.

In other parts of the world, cinematography was in its infancy, but theatrical art was actively developing. The exception was India, where the first film was shot back in 1913. In the 1930s, Alam Ara directed by Irane and Devdas directed by Barua were released here.

Architecture. In the art of the 20-30s, an intensive search for an answer to the question of the role and place of man in society, the principles of its interaction with the environment and the future of mankind continued. The French architect Le Corbusier considered architecture as part of social progress and preferred the development of comfortable residential buildings and complexes, supported the need for serial design and industrialization of construction. With the help of architecture, architects tried to eliminate the existing injustice and improve society. There was an idea to disperse the population of large cities in satellite cities, to create a garden city. Similar projects were carried out in England, France, Holland. In various forms, the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of human habitation and nature was implemented in the USA, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Sweden and other countries. it was picked up in the USSR, but at the same time they emasculated the essence, reducing it to propaganda slogans. I know the city will be, I know the garden will bloom when there are such people in the Soviet country! the poet Mayakovsky wrote in 1929 about the development of the city of Kuznetsk. However, mining and metallurgical industries still dominate there, and public infrastructure remains weak.

In countries with a totalitarian regime, they tried to impose on art the ideas of the superiority of one social system over another, to instill symbols of eternity and inviolability of the existing government, which cares about the well-being of the people and their spiritual purity. The architecture and sculpture of Germany and Italy embodied the ideas of unquestioning obedience, national and racial contempt, cultivated strength and rudeness. In the USSR, they supported those artists who were able to more clearly and convincingly show the pathos of socialist construction and the merits of the Bolshevik Party and its leaders in it. For a long time, Mukhina's sculptural group Worker and Collective Farm Woman, created specifically for the World Exhibition of 1937 in Paris, was called an outstanding phenomenon of international artistic culture here.

Ukrainian architectural modern(ukr. Ukrainian architectural modern), UAFM is one of the Ukrainian architectural styles, a kind of modern style, which developed on the territory of Ukraine for almost 40 years, from 1903 to 1941.

UAFM is based on the folk traditions of home and church construction and the achievements of Ukrainian professional architecture and, above all, baroque (see Ukrainian baroque), whose influence, starting from 1910, was noticeable and even growing. The influence of European modernity was also strong.

Despite the totalitarian state control over all spheres of the cultural development of society, the art of the USSR in the 30s of the 20th century did not lag behind the world trends of that time. The introduction of technological progress, as well as new trends from the West, contributed to the flourishing of literature, music, theater and cinema.

A distinctive feature of the Soviet literary process of this period was the confrontation of writers into two opposite groups: some writers supported Stalin's policy and glorified the world socialist revolution, while others opposed the authoritarian regime in every possible way and condemned the leader's inhumane policy.

Russian literature of the 30s experienced its second heyday, and entered the history of world literature as the period of the Silver Age. At that time, unsurpassed masters of the word worked: A. Akhmatova, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, M. Tsvetaeva, V. Mayakovsky.

Russian prose also showed its literary power: the work of I. Bunin, V. Nabokov, M. Bulgakov, A. Kuprin, I. Ilf and E. Petrov firmly entered the guild of world literary treasures. Literature during this period reflected the fullness of the realities of state and public life.

The works covered those issues that worried the public at that unpredictable time. Many Russian writers were forced to flee from the totalitarian persecution of the authorities to other states, however, they did not interrupt their writing activities abroad either.

In the 1930s, the Soviet theater experienced a period of decline. First of all, the theater was considered as the main instrument of ideological propaganda. Chekhov's immortal productions were eventually replaced by pseudo-realistic performances glorifying the leader and the communist party.

Outstanding actors who tried in every possible way to preserve the originality of the Russian theater were subjected to severe repressions by the father of the Soviet people, among them V. Kachalov, N. Cherkasov, I. Moskvin, M. Yermolova. The same fate befell the most talented director V. Meyerhold, who created his own theatrical school, which was a worthy competitor to the progressive West.

With the development of radio, the age of the birth of pop music began in the USSR. The songs that were broadcast on the radio and recorded on records became available to a wide audience of listeners. Mass song in the Soviet Union was represented by the works of D. Shostakovich, I. Dunaevsky, I. Yuriev, V. Kozin.

The Soviet government completely denied the jazz direction, which was popular in Europe and the USA (this is how the work of L. Utesov, the first Russian jazz performer, was ignored in the USSR). Instead, musical works were welcomed that glorified the socialist system and inspired the nation to labor and exploits in the name of the great revolution.

Cinematography in the USSR

The masters of Soviet cinema of this period were able to achieve significant heights in the development of this art form. A huge contribution to the development of cinema was made by D. Vetrov, G. Alexandrov, A. Dovzhenko. Unsurpassed actresses - Lyubov Orlova, Rina Zelenaya, Faina Ranevskaya - became the symbol of Soviet cinema.

Many films, as well as other works of art, served the propaganda purposes of the Bolsheviks. But still, thanks to the skill of acting, the introduction of sound, high-quality scenery, Soviet films in our time cause genuine admiration of contemporaries. Such tapes as "Merry Fellows", "Spring", "Foundling" and "Earth" - have become a real asset of Soviet cinema.