Abstract. the main types of polyphony and the general principles of working on it in a children's music school

T.M. Sinetskaya

TYPES OF POLYPHONY

(short lecture-compendium on the course of polyphony

for ChGAKI students)

In existing polyphonic music, it is customary to distinguish two types of polyphony: imitation and non-imitation. In turn, non-imitative polyphony is divided into subvocal and contrast. In connection with the foregoing, in some manuals there is a classification that includes three types: imitation, subvocal and contrast, which is of no fundamental importance. Let us name the most significant characteristics of each of these species.

subvocal called a musical warehouse based on the simultaneous combination of the main tune and its variants. In this way, undertone- This is a variant of the main tune. The undertones can be very close to the main tune, differ minimally from it (form a parallel movement, sometimes merge into unison, etc.), but they can also differ significantly, have a pronounced independence, thus approaching contrasting polyphony. The ability to form echoes with varying degrees of contrast opens up great prospects for the creator of music, increases the number of ways to correlate voices, which leads to a variety of semantic, dynamic and emotional content.

Podvolosnost is a fundamental feature of many national musical cultures, including Russian. In the process of the centuries-old development of Russian folk choral polyphony, such stable features of sub-vocality have developed, such as: 1) monophonic sing-along, 2) choral pickup, 3) gradual splitting of unison into two, three or more voices based on a common tone, 4) gradual compression of polyphony into unison based on a common tone, 5) movement in parallel thirds and sixths, 6) parallel-variable mode, 7) octave or unison cadenzas.

Outstanding Russian classical composers, constantly studying the Russian song, listened to its sound, character, principles of texture organization and sought to transfer the stylistic features of Russian songwriting into their work. Many choral scenes in the operas of Russian classical composers are excellent examples of penetration into the spirit of national culture, recreating the nature of folk singing. Examples are numerous: M.I. Glinka - choirs "My Motherland" and "Razgulyalis-poured" from the opera "Ivan Susanin", "Oh, you, light, Lyudmila" from the opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila"; A.P. Borodin - the choir of the villagers from the opera "Prince Igor", ritual scenes in the opera by N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov's "The Snow Maiden", choral scenes in the operas "Khovanshchina" and "Boris Godunov" by M.P. Mussorgsky and others.

ATTENTION!INDEPENDENT WORK: to find 4-5 samples in the collections of Russian songs, confirming the undertone as the leading feature; to continue a number of examples in which the features of folk undertones from Russian classical music are implemented.

Contrast polyphony is based on the simultaneous connection of two or more voices (themes) that are independent in terms of melodic and rhythmic patterns. There are different levels of contrast: contrast-complementation, contrast-comparison, contrast-conflict. This type of polyphony is extremely common in music of various genres and styles: theatrical, symphonic, vocal, chamber, etc. A huge number of examples are evidence of the great expressive possibilities of contrast polyphony: double and triple fugues by various composers (“Prelude in A Major” from I. S. Bach - triple fugue with joint exposure); Prelude in G major from the cycle "24 Preludes and Fugues for Piano", reprise; The second piano concerto (the beginning of the reprise of the 1st part) and romances by S.V. Rachmaninov (for example, "Morning", "Do not sing, beauty, in my presence"), operas by G. Verdi, for example, the introduction, the final scene in the dungeon ("Aida"), numerous ensemble scenes in Otello, etc.

simulation polyphony is called, based on the sequential holding of a theme or part of it in two or more voices. Originating in the 13th century, imitation became the basis for a number of independent forms and genres that emerged in subsequent centuries, the most important method for the development of both polyphonic and homophonic forms proper. Classical imitation genres: ricercar, polyphonic canzone, fugue, fughetta, invention, different types of canons, techniques - canonical imitation, canonical sequence.

Named types of polyphony in pure form(over the course of a whole piece of music) are rare. In most cases, they are used as complementary, as a means of mutual enrichment. For example, with the leading role of imitative technique in the fugue, there is necessarily a contrasting polyphony, and undertones can be used. Different types of polyphony are also an effective means of enriching the homophonic-harmonic warehouse. All of the above expands the expressive possibilities of different types of polyphony, makes it possible to infinitely vary their ratios.

ATTENTION! INDEPENDENT WORK. Find in the musical literature examples of different types of polyphony, their combination. Make a list of musical works in which one or another type of polyphony predominates or contains their complementarity (make explanations).

Differences between warehouse and invoice. warehouse criteria. Monodic, polyphonic and harmonic warehouses.

Warehouse (German Satz, Schreibweise; English setting, constitution; French conformation) is a concept that determines the specifics of the deployment of voices (voices), the logic of their horizontal, and in polyphony also vertical organization.

Invoice (lat. factura - manufacturing, processing, structure, from facio - I do, carry out, form; German Faktur, Satz - warehouse, Satzweise, Schreibweise - manner of writing; French facture, structure, conformation - device, addition; English. texture, texture, structure, build-up; Italian strutture). In a broad sense - one of the sides of the muses. forms, is included in the aesthetic and philosophical concept of muses. forms in unity with all means of expression; in a narrower and use. sense - the specific design of the muses. fabrics, music exposition.

Warehouse and texture correlate as categories of genus and species. For example, an accompaniment (as a functional layer) in a homophonic-harmonic warehouse can be performed in the form of a chord or figurative (for example, arpeggiated) texture; polyphonic piece can be sustained in homorhythmic (
in which each voice of a polyphonic whole moves in the same rhythm) or in an imitation texture, etc.

Monodia and her historical forms. The difference between a monodic warehouse and a monophonic texture.

Monody (from Greek - singing or reciting alone) - a musical warehouse, the main textural feature of which is monophony (singing or
performance on a musical instrument, in a polyphonic form - with duplications in an octave or unison). In contrast to monophonically performed (monophonic texture) new European melodies, which in one way or another describe or imply tonal functions, works of a monodic warehouse do not imply any harmonization - modern science explains the laws of their pitch structure immanently, as a rule, from the standpoint of modality. Thus, monodic compositions are not the same as monophonic compositions (monophonic texture). In music theory, monody is opposed to homophony and polyphony. Monodic. the warehouse assumes only a "horizontal dimension" without any vertical relationship. In strictly unison monodich. samples (Gregorian chant, Znamenny chant) single-headed. music fabric and texture are identical. A rich monodic texture distinguishes, for example, the music of the East. peoples who did not know polyphony: in the Uzbek and Tajik maqom, singing is duplicated instrumental ensemble with the participation of drums performing usul. Monodic structure and texture easily turn into a phenomenon intermediate between monody and polyphony - into a heterophonic presentation, where unison singing in the process of performance is complicated by various melodic-textural options.

Antique (Ancient Greek and Roman) music was monodic in nature. Monodic songs of European minstrels - troubadours, trouvers and minnesingers, ancient traditions liturgical singing in the Christian church: Gregorian chant, Byzantine and Old Russian chants, medieval
paraliturgical songs - Italian laudas, Spanish and Portuguese cantigas, monophonic conducts, all regional forms of the Eastern maqamat
(Azerbaijani mugham, Persian dastgah, Arabic maqam, etc.).

By the (false) analogy with ancient monody, Western musicologists (since the 1910s) generally call the word "monodia" solo singing with instrumental
accompaniment (usually limited to a digital bass), that is, instances of a homophonic-harmonic warehouse that are observed in Italian and German early baroque music (between approximately 1600 and 1640) - arias, madrigals, motets, songs, etc.

The term "monodic style" (stylus monodicus, instead of the then common stylus recitativus) in relation to the music of Caccini, Peri and Monteverdi in 1647
year suggested J.B. Doni.

Polyphony and its types. Difficult counterpoint.

Polyphony (from Greek - numerous and - sound) - a warehouse of polyphonic music, characterized by the simultaneous sounding, development and interaction of several voices (melodic lines, melodies in the broad sense), equal in terms of compositional and technical melodic development) and musical-logical (equal carriers of "musical thought"). The word "polyphony" also refers to the musical-theoretical discipline that studies polyphonic compositions (formerly "counterpoint").

The essence of polyphony. warehouse - correlation at the same time. sounding melodies. lines are relatively independent. the development of which (more or less independent of the consonances arising along the vertical) constitutes the logic of the muses. forms. In polyphonic music The tissues of the voice show a tendency towards functional equality, but they can also be multifunctional. Among the qualities of polyphonic F. creatures. density and rarefaction ("viscosity" and "transparency") are important, to-rye are regulated by the number of polyphonic. voices (masters of a strict style willingly wrote for 8-12 voices, preserving one type of F. without a sharp change in sonority; however, in masses it was customary to set off magnificent polyphony with light two- or three-voices, for example, Crucifixus in the masses of Palestrina). Palestrina only outlines, and in free writing, polyphonic techniques are widely used. thickening, thickening (especially at the end of the piece) with the help of increase and decrease, stretta (fugue in C-dur from the 1st volume of Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier), combinations of different themes (the code of the finale of Taneyev's symphony in c-moll). In the example below, textural thickening due to the rapid pulse of the introductions and textural growth of the 1st (thirty-second) and 2nd (chords) elements of the theme are characteristic: F. d ​​"Ana. An excerpt from a motet.

The opposite case is polyphonic. F., based on the full metrorhythm. independence of voices, as in the mensural canons (see the example in v. Canon, column 692); the most common type of complementary polyphonic. F. is determined thematically. and rhythmic. like themselves. voices (in imitations, canons, fugues, etc.). Polyphonic F. does not exclude a sharp rhythmic. stratification and an unequal ratio of voices: contrapuntal voices moving in relatively short durations form the background for the dominant cantus firmus (in masses and motets of the 15th-16th centuries, in Bach's organ choral arrangements). In the music of later times (19th and 20th centuries), polyphony of different themes developed, creating unusually picturesque F. (for example, the textured interweaving of the leitmotifs of fire, fate, and Brünnhilde's dream at the conclusion of Wagner's opera The Valkyrie).

Among the new phenomena of music of the 20th century. should be noted: F. linear polyphony (movement of harmonically and rhythmically uncorrelated voices, see " Chamber symphonies"Milhaud); P., associated with complex dissonant duplication of polyphonic voices and turning into polyphony of layers (often in the work of O. Messiaen); "dematerialized" pointillistic F. in the work of A. Webern and the opposite polyphonic heaviness of orc counterpoint by A. Berg and A. Schoenberg, polyphonic phonics of aleatory (by V. Lutoslawsky) and sonoristic effects (by K. Penderetsky).

O. Messiaen. Epouvante (Rhythmic canon. Example No 50 from his book "The Technique of My Musical Language").

Polyphony is divided into types:

Sub-vocal polyphony, in which, along with the main melody, its echoes sound, that is, slightly different options (this coincides with the concept of heterophony). Typical for Russian folk song.

Imitation polyphony, in which the main theme sounds first in one voice, and then, possibly with changes, appears in other voices (there may be several main themes). The form in which the theme is repeated without change is called canon. The pinnacle of imitation polyphony is fugue.

Contrasting polyphony (or polymelody), in which different melodies sound simultaneously. First appeared in the 19th century.

Complex counterpoint- a polyphonic combination of melodically developed voices (different or similar in imitation), which is designed for contrapuntal modified repetition, reproduction with a change in the ratio of these voices (unlike simple counterpoint - German einfacher Kontrapunkt - polyphonic combination of voices used in only one , given their combination). Abroad, the term "S. to." does not apply; in him. musicological literature uses the related concept mehrfacher Kontrapunkt, denoting only triple and quadruple vertically movable counterpoint. In S. to., the original (given, original) connection of melodic is distinguished. voices and one or more derivative compounds - polyphonic. original options. Depending on the nature of the changes, there are, according to the teachings of S. I. Taneyev, three main types of counterpoint: mobile counterpoint (divided into vertically mobile, horizontally mobile and doubly mobile), reversible counterpoint (divided into complete and incomplete reversible ) and counterpoint, which allows doubling (one of the varieties of mobile counterpoint). All these types of S. to. are often combined; for example, in the Fugue Credo (No 12) from J.S. Bach's mass in h-moll, two response intros (in bars 4 and 6) form the initial connection - a stretta with an entry distance of 2 bars (reproduced in bars 12-17), in in bars 17-21, a derivative connection sounds in doubly movable counterpoint (the distance of the entry is 11/2 measures with a vertical shift of the lower voice of the original connection up by a duodecime, the top one - down by a third), in measures 24-29 a derivative connection is formed from the connection in measures 17-21 in vertically movable counterpoint (Iv = - 7 - double octave counterpoint; reproduced at a different height in bars 29-33), from bar 33 follows a stretta in 4 voices with an increase in the theme in the bass: top. the pair of voices represents a compound derived from the original stretta in doubly movable counterpoint (introduction distance 1/4 bar; played at a different pitch in bars 38-41) with doubling the top. voices by the sixth from the bottom (in the example, polyphonic voices that are not included in the above combinations, as well as the accompanying 8th voice, are omitted).

Imitation polyphony. Topic. Simulation characteristics (interval and distance). Types of imitation. Counterposition.Canon. Proposta and risposta.

Imitation (from Latin imitatio - imitation) in music is a polyphonic technique in which, after the presentation of the topic in one voice, it is repeated in other voices. In the canons and fugues, the elements of imitation are named - proposta and risposta, theme and answer. The initial voice is called proposta (from Italian proposta - sentence (i.e. topic)), imitating voice - risposta (from Italian risposta - answer). There can be several risposts, depending on the number of votes. There are imitation interval (according to the initial sound), distance (according to the length of the proposta), and side (above or below the proposta). Imitation is simple and canonical.

Canonical imitation is a kind of imitation in which the imitating voice repeats not only the monophonic part of the melody, but also the oppositions that appear in the initial voice. Such imitation is often called continuous.

Simple imitation differs from canonical imitation in that only the monophonic part of the proposta is repeated in it.

The risposta can be different: in circulation (each interval in the proposta is taken in the opposite direction); in increase or decrease (in relation to the rhythm of the proposta); in combination of the first and second (for example, in circulation and increase); in a rakhode (movement in a rispost from the end to the beginning of the proposta); inaccurate (incomplete match with proposta).

Contrasubjectum (lat. contrasubjectum, from contra - against, and subjicio - to lay) in music - a voice accompanying the theme, in polyphonic or imitation polyphony. The main property of opposition is aesthetic value and technical independence in relation to the topic. It is achieved with the help of a different rhythm, a different melodic pattern, articulation, register, etc. At the same time, the opposition should form an ideal connection with the main voice.

Canon. A polyphonic form based on the technique of canonical imitation.

Translated from Greek, the term canon means rule, law. The voices of the canon have specific names: Proposta and Risposta. Proposta - the initial voice of the canon, in translation means a sentence, I propose. Risposta - imitating the voice of the canon, in translation means continuation, I continue.

In terms of composition technique, canon and canonical imitation are close; in the process of analyzing these polyphonic devices, a strict distinction between terms is not always observed. However, it should be borne in mind that the term "canon" refers not only to the technique of continuous imitation. This is the name of an independent composition - a complete form of canonical imitation in the form of a completed section or a separate work. Note that the canon as an independent composition belongs to the most ancient forms of the polyphonic warehouse. As for canonical imitation, the canon is characterized by such an element as a link. The number of links from two minimum can reach up to twenty or more.

Fugue. Topic. Answer and its types. Sideshows. Composition of the fugue as a whole. Fugues are simple and complex (double, triple). Fugato. Fughetta.

Fugue (lat. fuga - “running”, “escape”, “fast flow”) is a musical work of an imitation-polyphonic warehouse, based on the repeated performance of one or more themes in all voices. The fugue was formed in the 16-17th century from a vocal and instrumental motet and became the highest polyphonic form. Fugues are 2, 3, 4, etc. voice.

The theme of the fugue is a separate structural unit, which very often develops without any caesura into a codette or counterposition. The main sign of the isolation of a polyphonic theme is the presence in it of a stable melodic cadence (on the I, III or V steps). Not every theme ends with this cadence. Therefore, there are topics closed and open.

The main sections of the fugue are the exposition and the free part, which can be subdivided in turn into the middle (development) and final (reprise).

Exposure. The theme (T) in the main key is the leader. Carrying out the theme in the key of the Dominant - the answer, the companion. The answer is real - the exact transposition of the theme in the key of D; or tonal - slightly modified at the beginning to gradually introduce a new key. The counterpoint is the counterpoint to the first answer. The opposition can be withheld, i.e. unchanged to all themes and answers (in the complex counterpoint of the octave, - vertically movable) and unrestrained, i.e. new every time.

A bunch from a theme to an opposition (two or more sounds) is a codetta.

Sideshow - building between the conduct of the topic (and answer). Interludes can be in all sections of the fugue. They may be sequential. An interlude is a tense area of ​​action (a prototype of the development of sonata forms). The order of entry of voices (soprano, alto, bass) may be different. Additional topics are possible.

A counter-exposure is possible - a second exposure.

Middle part. A sign is the appearance of a new tonality (not expositional, not T and not D), often parallel. Sometimes its sign is the beginning of active development: the theme is magnified, stretta imitation. Stretta is a compressed imitation, where the theme enters in a different voice before it ends. The stretta can be found in all sections of the fugue, but is more typical of the final movement, or middle movement. It creates the effect of "thematic condensation".

Final part (reprise). Its sign is the return of the main key with the theme carried out in it. There may be one holding, 2, 3 or more. T - D are possible.

Often there is a coda - a small cadence construction. Possible T organ point, adding voices is possible.

Fugues are simple (on one topic) and complex (on 2 or 3 topics) - double. triple. The presence of a free part, in which all themes are combined contrapuntally, is a prerequisite for the formation of a complex fugue.

Double fugues are of 2 types: 1) Double fugues with a joint exposition of themes sounding simultaneously. Usually four voices. They are similar to fugues with a retained counterposition, but, unlike the latter, double fugues begin with two voices of both themes (the counterposition in ordinary fugues sounds only with the answer). Topics are usually contrasting, structurally closed, thematically significant. Note. Kyrieeleison from Mozart's Requiem.

2) Double fugues with separate exposure of topics. The middle part and the final part, as a rule, are common. Sometimes there is a separate exposition and a middle part for each topic with a common final part.

Numerous forms are based on imitation, including canons, fugues, fughettas, fugatos, as well as such specific techniques as stretta, canonical sequent, endless canon, etc.

Fughetta is a small fugue. Or a fugue of less serious content.
Fugato is an exposition of a fugue. Sometimes the exposition and the middle part. Often found in the development of sonatas, symphonies, in sections of cycles (cantatas, oratorios), in polyphonic (on basso ostinato) variations.

Harmonic Warehouse. Types of invoices in it. Definition of a chord. Classification of chords. Invoice receipts. non-chord sounds.

Most often, the term "Texture" is applied to music of a harmonic warehouse. In the immeasurable variety of types of harmonic Textures, the first and simplest is its division into homophonic-harmonic and proper chordal (which is considered as a special case of homophonic-harmonic). Chordal F. is monorhythmic: all voices are set out in sounds of the same duration (the beginning of Tchaikovsky's overture-fantasy Romeo and Juliet). In homophonic harmonic. F. drawings of melody, bass and complementary voices are clearly separated (the beginning of Chopin's c-moll nocturne).

There are the following main types of presentation of harmonic consonances (Tyulin, 1976, ch. 3rd, 4th):

a) harmonic figuration of a chord-figurative type, representing one or another form of successive presentation of chord sounds (prelude C-dur from the 1st volume of Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier);

b) rhythmic figuration - the repetition of a sound or chord (poem D-dur op. 32 No 2 by Scriabin);

c) color figuration - dec. duplications, for example, into an octave in orchestral presentation (a minuet from Mozart's G-moll symphony) or a long doubling into a third, sixth, etc., forming a "tape movement" ("Musical Moment" op. 16 No 3 by Rachmaninov);

d) various types of melodic. figurations, the essence of which is the introduction of melodic. movements in harmony. voices - complication of chord figuration by passing and auxiliary. sounds (Etude in c-moll op. 10 No 12 by Chopin), melodicization (choir and orchestra presentation of the main theme at the beginning of the 4th painting "Sadko" by Rimsky-Korsakov) and polyphonization of voices (introduction to Wagner's "Lohengrin"), melodic-rhythmic "revival" org. point (4th painting "Sadko", number 151).

The above systematization of types of harmonic textures is the most general. In music, there are many specific textural techniques, the appearance of which and the methods of use are determined by the stylistic norms of a given musical-historical era; therefore, the history of the Texture is inseparable from the history of harmony, orchestration (in a broader sense, instrumentalism), and performance.

Chord (French accord, lit. - consent; it. accordo - consonance) - 1) a consonance of three or more sounds, capable of having a different interval structure and purpose, which is the leading structural element of the harmonic system and necessarily possesses in relations with its similar elements three such properties as autonomy, hierarchy and linearity; 2) a combination of several sounds various heights, acting as a harmonic unity with an individual colorful essence.

chord classification:

by ear impression

by position in the music system

by position in tone

according to the position of the main tone.

according to the number of tones included in chord triads, etc.

according to the interval that determines the structure of the chord (terts and non-terts structures. The latter include consonances of three or more sounds arranged in fourths or having a mixed structure).

chords, the sounds of which are located in seconds (tones and semitones), as well as in intervals of less than a second (by a quarter, third of a tone, etc.), are called clusters.

Non-chord sounds - (German akkordfremde or harmoniefremde Töne, English nonharmonic tones, French notes йtrangires, Italian note accidentali melodiche or note ornamentali) - sounds that are not part of the chord. N. h. enrich harmonies. consonances, introducing melodic into them. gravitation, varying the sound of chords, forming additional melodic-functional connections in relations with them. N. h. are classified primarily depending on the method of interaction with chord sounds: do N. z. to a heavy beat of the measure, and chord ones to a light one, or vice versa, does the N. z. return? to the original chord or goes into another chord, whether N. z appears. in progressive motion or taken abruptly, whether N. z. a second movement or it turns out to be thrown, etc. There are the following main. types of N. h.:
1) detention (abbreviation: h);
2) appoggiatura (ap);
3) passing sound (n);
4) auxiliary sound (c);
5) cambiata (k), or abruptly thrown auxiliary;
6) jump tone (sk) - detention or auxiliary, taken without preparation and abandoned. without permission;
7) lift (pm).

Mixing warehouses (polyphonic-harmonic). warehouse modulation.

The canon may be accompanied by harmonic accompaniment. In this case, a mixed polyphonic-harmonic warehouse appears. A work that begins in one warehouse may end in another.

History of warehouses and history musical thinking(epochs of monody, epochs of polyphony, epochs of harmonic thinking). New phenomena of the XX century: sonor-monodic warehouse, pointillism.

The evolution and changes in the musical structure are connected with the main stages in the development of European professional music; thus, the epochs of monody (ancient cultures, the Middle Ages), polyphony (the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance), and homophony (modern times) are singled out. In the 20th century new varieties of the musical warehouse arose: sonoristic-monodic (a formally polyphonic, but essentially a single line of inseparable, timbre-meaning evucheities is characteristic, see Sonorica), pointillistic musical warehouse (individual sounds or motifs in different registers, formally forming a line, actually belong many hidden voices), etc.

harmonic warehouse and Invoice originate in polyphony; for example, Palestrina, who perfectly felt the beauty of the triad, could use the figuration of emerging chords over many measures with the help of complex polyphonic (canons) and the choir itself. means (crossings, duplications), admiring the harmony, like a jeweler with a stone (Kyrie from the Mass of Pope Marcello, bars 9-11, 12-15 - five counterpoint). For a long time in instr. prod. composers of the 17th century chorus addiction. The style of strict writing was obvious (for example, in the op. op. by J. Sweelinka), and composers were content with relatively uncomplicated techniques and drawings of mixed harmonica. and polyphonic. F. (for example, J. Frescobaldi).

The expressive role of texture is enhanced in the production. 2nd floor. 17th century (in particular, spatial-textural juxtapositions of solo and tutti in A. Corelli's works). The music of J. S. Bach is marked by the highest development of F. (chaconne d-moll for solo violin, Goldberg Variations, Brandenburg Concertos), and in some virtuoso Op. ("Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue"; Fantasy G-dur for organ, BWV 572) Bach makes textural discoveries, subsequently widely used by romantics. For music Viennese classics the clarity of harmony and, accordingly, the clarity of textured patterns are characteristic. Composers used relatively simple textural means and relied on general forms movements (for example, figures such as passages or arpeggios), which did not conflict with the attitude to F. as a thematically significant element (see, for example, the middle in the 4th variation from the 1st part of the sonata No 11 A-dur Mozart, K.-V. 331); in the presentation and development of the themes from Allegri sonatas, motivic development occurs in parallel with textural development (for example, in the main and connecting parts of the 1st movement of Beethoven's Sonata No 1). In the music of the 19th century, primarily among the Romantic composers, exceptions are observed. a variety of types of F. - sometimes lush and multi-layered, sometimes cozy at home, sometimes fantastically bizarre; strong textural and stylistic differences arise even in the work of one master (cf. the diverse and powerful F. sonatas in h-moll for piano and the impressionistically refined drawing of the pianoforte of Liszt's play "Grey Clouds"). One of the most important trends in music of the 19th century. - individualization of textured drawings: the interest in the extraordinary, inimitable, characteristic of the art of romanticism, made it natural to reject typical figures in F. Special methods were found for the multi-octave selection of a melody (Liszt); The musicians found opportunities for updating F. primarily in the melody of a wide harmonica. figurations (including in such an unusual form as in the finale of the piano sonata b-moll by Chopin), sometimes turning almost into polyphonic. narration (the theme of a side part in the exposition of the 1st ballad for FP Chopin). Textured variety supported the interest of the listener in the wok. and instr. cycles of miniatures, it to a certain extent stimulated the composition of music in genres directly dependent on F. - etudes, variations, rhapsodies. On the other hand, there was a polyphonization of F. in general (the finale of Frank's violin sonata) and harmonica. figurations in particular (an 8-head canon in the introduction to Wagner's "Gold of the Rhine"). Rus. musicians discovered a source of new sonorities in the textural techniques of the East. music (see, in particular, "Islamei" by Balakirev). One of the most important. achievements of the 19th century in the field of F. - strengthening its motive richness, thematic. concentration (R. Wagner, I. Brahms): in some Op. in fact, there is not a single measure of non-thematic. material (e.g. symphony in c-moll, piano quintet by Taneyev, late operas by Rimsky-Korsakov). The extreme point in the development of individualized Ph. was the emergence of P.-harmony and F.-timbre. The essence of this phenomenon is that at a certain Under conditions, harmony, as it were, passes into F., expressiveness is determined not so much by the sound composition as by the picturesque arrangement: the correlation of the "floors" of the chord with each other, with the registers of the piano, with the orchestra takes precedence. groups; more important is not the pitch, but the texture filling of the chord, that is, how it is taken. Examples of F.-harmony are contained in Op. M. P. Mussorgsky (for example, "Clock with Chimes" from the 2nd act of the opera "Boris Godunov"). But in general, this phenomenon is more typical of the music of the 20th century: F.-harmony is often found in the production of. A. N. Scriabin (the beginning of the reprise of the 1st part of the 4th piano sonata; the culmination of the 7th piano sonata; the last chord of the piano poem "To the Flame"), K. Debussy, S. V. Rachmaninov. In other cases, the merger of F. and harmony determines the timbre (fp. play "Skarbo" by Ravel), which is especially pronounced in orc. the technique of "combining similar figures", when the sound arises from the combination of rhythmic. variants of one textured figure (a technique known for a long time, but brilliantly developed in the scores of I. F. Stravinsky; see the beginning of the ballet "Petrushka").

In the claim of the 20th century. coexist different ways updates F. As the most general trends are noted: the strengthening of the role of F. in general, including polyphonic. F., in connection with the predominance of polyphony in the music of the 20th century. (in particular, as a restoration of F. of past eras in the production of the neoclassical direction); further individualization of textural techniques (film is essentially "composed" for each new product, just as an individual form and harmony are created for them); opening - in connection with the new harmonics. norms - dissonant duplications (3 etudes, op. 65 by Scriabin), the contrast of especially complex and "refinedly simple" F. (1st part of Prokofiev's 5th piano concerto), improvisational drawings. type (No 24 "Horizontal and Vertical" from Shchedrin's "Polyphonic Notebook"); combination of original textural features of nat. music with the latest harmony. and orc. technique prof. art-va (brightly colorful "Symphonic Dances" Mold. Comp. P. Rivilis and other works); continuous thematization of F. c) in particular, in serial and serial works), leading to the identity of thematism and F.

Appearance in new music 20th century non-traditional warehouse, not related to either harmonic or polyphonic, determines the corresponding varieties of Ph.: the following fragment of the product. shows the discontinuity characteristic of this music, the incoherence of F. - register stratification (independence), dynamic. and articulation. differentiation: P. Boulez. Piano Sonata No 1, beginning of the 1st movement.

The value of F. in the art of music. avant-garde is brought to logic. limit, when F. becomes almost the only one (in a number of works by K. Penderetsky) or unities. the goal of the actual composer's work (vocal. Stockhausen's "Stimmungen" sextet is a texture-timbre variation of one B-dur triad). F. improvisation in given pitch or rhythmic. within - main. reception of controlled aleatorics (op. V. Lutoslavsky); the field of F. includes an uncountable set of sonoristic. inventions (collection of sonoristic techniques - "Coloristic fantasy" for the opera Slonimsky). To electronic and concrete music created without tradition. tools and means of execution, the concept of F., apparently, is not applicable.

The invoice means. shaping possibilities (Mazel, Zuckerman, 1967, pp. 331-342). The connection between the form and the form is expressed in the fact that the preservation of this pattern of the form contributes to the fusion of the construction, its change - dismemberment. F. has long served as the most important transformative tool in sec. ostinato and neostinata variation forms ah, revealing in some cases large dynamic. possibilities ("Bolero" by Ravel). F. is able to decisively change the appearance and essence of the muses. image (carrying out the leitmotif in the 1st part, in the development and code of the 2nd part of the 4th piano sonata by Scriabin); textural changes are often used in reprises of three-movement forms (2nd part of the 16th piano sonata of Beethoven; nocturne c-moll op. 48 by Chopin), in the refrain in the rondo (finale of the piano sonata No. 25 of Beethoven). The formative role of F. is significant in the development of sonata forms (especially orc. compositions), in which the boundaries of sections are determined by a change in the method of processing and, consequently, F. thematic. material. F.'s change becomes one of the main. means of dividing the form in the works of the 20th century. ("Pacific 231" by Honegger). In some new compositions, the form turns out to be decisive for the construction of the form (for example, in the so-called repetitive forms based on the variable return of one construction).

Shader types are often associated with a specific. genres (eg, dance music), which is the basis for combining in production. different genre features that give the music an artistically effective ambiguity (expressive examples of this kind in Chopin's music: for example, Prelude No. 20 c-moll - a mixture of the features of a chorale, a funeral march and a passacaglia). F. retains signs of one or another historical or individual muses. style (and, by association, era): so-called. guitar accompaniment enables S.I. Taneev to create a subtle stylization of early Russian. elegies in the romance "When, whirling, autumn leaves"; G. Berlioz in the 3rd part of the symphony "Romeo and Julia" to create nat. and historical color skillfully reproduces the sound of the madrigal a cappella of the 16th century; R. Schumann in "Carnival" writes authentic music. portraits of F. Chopin and N. Paganini. F. - main source music descriptiveness, especially convincing in cases where k.-l. traffic. With the help of F. visual clarity of music is achieved (introduction to Wagner's "Gold of the Rhine"), at the same time. full of mystery and beauty ("Praise to the Desert" from "The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia" by Rimsky-Korsakov), and sometimes of amazing trembling ("the heart beats in rapture" in M. I. Glinka's romance "I remember a wonderful moment" ).

Invoice (from lat. factura - manufacturing, processing, structure) - 1) design, structure of the musical fabric; 2) certain population, content, relations of various elements of the musical fabric simultaneously and sequentially unfolding, including tones, harmonic intervals, consonances, sonors, all kinds of rhythmic, dynamic, stroke and articulatory structural units involved in the formation of more or less independent simplified linear or melodic voices , sonor layers or discrete space. In the broadest sense, the term "texture" encompasses timbre, all three dimensions of musical space - depth, vertical and horizontal, and is "sensually perceived, directly audible sound layer of music", capable of acting as the main carrier of its thought - texture theme, i.e. . as a relatively independent equivalent of "theme-melody" and "theme-harmony". As a rule, when determining the texture, they also characterize: "the volume and general configuration of the sound mass of the musical fabric (for example, "crescending sound flow" and "diminating sound flow"), the "weight" of this mass (for example, the texture is "heavy", " massive", "light"), its density (texture "discrete", "sparse", "dense", "condensed", "compact", etc.), the nature of vocal connections (texture "linear", including "gamma-like ", "melodic", "discrete") and the relationship of individual voices (texture "sub-voice" or "heterophonic", "imitation", "contrast-polyphonic", "homophonic", "choral", "sonor", "discrete" and etc.), instrumental composition (texture "orchestral", "choral", "quartet", etc.) They also talk about the texture typical for certain genres ("texture of a marching march", "texture of a waltz", etc.) and etc." .
For example:
chord-tape texture - a monophonic or polyphonic texture, the voices of which are duplicated by chords;
arpeggio-ostinato texture - repeating arpeggio;
"diagonal texture" - texture, the leading technique of which is "crescendo-diminuendo as a way of decorating the musical fabric, giving it order and integrity", and its constituent elements are "total chromatic with continuous filling of halftone "fields", dodecaphone series, consonance clusters ";
contrast pair-imitation texture* - texture in which voices imitating each other are thematically connected in pairs;
contrast-voice texture (= contrast-polyphonic voice);
contrast-layer texture (= contrast-polyphonic layer texture);
linear-wavy monomer texture;
vibrating band - a texture, the content of which is formed in the process of a relatively slow and regular shift for a second up and down any harmonic element, including: interval, chord, sonor. Her options are:
1 chord vibrating band (= chord vibrato),
2 interval vibrating band,
3 sonoro-vibrating band.
rehearsal-chord gliding texture - a texture in which each chord is quickly repeated with acceleration or deceleration;
static sonar tape - a texture composed of a certain set of voice-lines that do not stand out from the general sound mass; the same as the Sonoro-pedal polylinear texture;
trill texture - texture, the leading structural unit of which is a trill;
texture-allusion - texture, which is presented only as an allusion to some textures, i.e. perceived as their blurry projection;
texture-fermentation - staccato, "markat", "legate", etc. repeated "sorting out" of two or more relatively closely spaced tones, harmonic intervals, chords, reminiscent of the process of fermentation, boiling of a viscous liquid, on the surface of which regular and irregular, uneven-pitched and single-pitched "burst tones", "burst intervals" constantly or alternately appear and "burst chords";

POLYPHONY - a type of polyphony based on the simultaneous combination of two or more independent melodic lines. The term "polyphony" has Greek origin(πολνς - many, φωνή - sound). Appeared in musical theory and practice in the 20th century. An earlier term is "Counterpoint" (from the Latin punctus contra punctum, note against note), found in treatises after 1330. Until that time, the term discantus was used (a voice attached to this voice- cantus). Even earlier, in the 9th-12th centuries, polyphony was denoted by the word diafonia.

Classification of types of polyphony(according to S. Skrebkov).

1. Contrasting or multi-dark polyphony. It is based on the simultaneous sounding of melodies, contrasting in melodic and rhythmic patterns, and in vocal music, in text. It is possible to functionally divide the voices into the main (often borrowed) melody and the contrapunctuating one (attached to it).

Example 1. J. S. Bach. Choral prelude Es-dur “Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme” BWF 645.

2. Imitation polyphony. From the Latin Imitatio - imitation. It is based on the performance of the same melody by different voices in turn, that is, with a shift in time. The voices are functionally equal (they are not divided into main and contrapuntal), melodically identical or similar, but at every moment of sound they contrast, that is, they form counterpoint.

Example 2. Josquin Despres. Missa “L home arme (sexti toni)”.

3. Sub-voice polyphony as a variety heterophony. Heterophony (from the Greek ετερος - another and φωνή - sound) - ancient species polyphony that exists in the oral tradition of folk music and liturgical singing. Written samples are either a recording of a sung version or a composer's pastiche.

Heterophony is based on the simultaneous sounding of several versions of the same tune. Branches from the monody arise over a short distance and form, in the main, duplications. One of the reasons for this phenomenon is the oral nature of monodic culture. Oral types of creativity presuppose the existence in the mind of the performer of a certain melodic fundamental principle, according to which each voice sings its own version. The second reason is the natural differences in the ranges of the performers' voices.

In subvocal polyphony, branches from the main melody are more independent than in other varieties of heterophony. Contrasting polyphony is formed in some sections. Voice functions are divided into main voice and subvoice.

2. episodic branches from the main melody (accompaniment) in the middle of the line (verse) during syllabic chant,

3. return to unison at the end of the line (verse),

5. simultaneous pronunciation of syllables of the text,

6. relatively free use of dissonances.

Example 3. Russian folk song "Green Grove".

Main literature.

Simakova N. A. Strict style counterpoint and fugue. History, theory, practice. Part 1. Strict style counterpoint as an artistic tradition and academic discipline. - M., 2002.

Skrebkov S. S. Textbook of polyphony. - M., 1965.

Polyphony

(from the Greek polus - many and ponn - sound, voice; lit. - polyphony) - a type of polyphony based on the same time. the sound of two or more melodies. lines or melodic. votes. “Polyphony, in its highest sense,” pointed out A. N. Serov, “should be understood as the harmonic merging together of several independent melodies, going in several voices at the same time, together. In rational speech it is unthinkable that, for example, several persons spoke together, each his own, and so that confusion, incomprehensible nonsense does not come out of this, but, on the contrary, an excellent general impression. In music, such a miracle is possible; it is one of the aesthetic specialties of our art. " The concept of "P." coincides with the broad meaning of the term counterpoint. N. Ya. Myaskovsky referred to the area of ​​contrapuntal. mastery of a combination of melodically independent voices and the combination of several at the same time. thematic elements.
P. is one of the most important means of music. composition and art. expressiveness. Numerous P.'s techniques serve to diversify the content of the muses. production, implementation and development of arts. images; by means of P. it is possible to modify, compare and combine muses. Topics. P. relies on the patterns of melody, rhythm, mode, and harmony. Instrumentation, dynamics, and other components of music also influence the expressiveness of musical techniques. Depending on the definition music context may change art. the meaning of certain means polyphonic. presentation. There are different music forms and genres used to create products. polyphonic warehouse: fugue, fughetta, invention, canon, polyphonic variations, in the 14-16 centuries. - motet, madrigal, etc. Polyphonic. episodes (for example, fugato) are also found in other forms.
Polyphonic (contrapuntal) warehouse of music. prod. opposes homophonic harmonic (see Harmony, Homophony), where voices form chords and Ch. melodic line, most often in the upper voice. The core feature of polyphonic the texture that distinguishes it from the homophonic-harmonic one is fluidity, which is achieved by erasing the caesuras that separate the constructions, by the inconspicuousness of the transitions from one to another. Polyphonic voices. constructions rarely cadence at the same time, usually their cadences do not coincide, which causes a feeling of continuity of movement as a special expression. quality inherent in P. While some voices begin the presentation of a new or repetition (imitation) of the previous melody (theme), others have not yet completed the previous one:

Palestrina. Reacherkar in I tone.
At such moments, knots of complex structural plexuses are formed, combining in simultaneity the different functions of the muses. forms. Then comes the definition. rarefaction of tension, the movement is simplified up to the next node of complex plexuses, etc. In such dramatic conditions proceeds the development of polyphonic. prod., especially if they allow large art. tasks differ in depth of content.
The combination of voices along the vertical is regulated in P. by the laws of harmony inherent in the definition. era or style. “As a result, no counterpoint can exist without harmony, because any combination of simultaneous melodies at its separate points forms consonances or chords. In genesis, no harmony is possible without counterpoint, since the desire to combine several melodies at the same time precisely caused the existence of harmony” (G A. Laroche). In strict-style pavement of the 15th-16th centuries. dissonances were located between consonances and required smooth movement; dissonances were not connected by smoothness and could pass one into another, pushing the modal-melodic resolution to a later time. In modern music, with its "emancipation" of dissonance, dissonant combinations of polyphonic. votes are allowed at any length.
Types of P. are diverse and difficult to classify due to the high fluidity inherent in this kind of music. lawsuit.
In some bunks. music In cultures, the subvocal type of P. is common, which is based on ch. melodic voice, from which melodic branches off. turnovers of other voices, echoes, varying and replenishing the main. melody, at times merging with it, in particular in cadences (see heterophony).
In prof. art-ve P. developed other melodic. ratios that contribute to the expressiveness of voices and all polyphonic. whole. Here, the type of piping depends on what the horizontal terms are: if the melody (theme) is imitated in different voices, an imitation pissing is formed, and if the combined melodies are different, a contrasting pissing is formed. This distinction is conditional, because when imitation in circulation, increase, decrease, and even more so in the sideways movement, the differences in melodies along the horizontal intensify and bring the P. closer to the contrast:

J. S. Bach. Organ fugue in C-dur (BWV 547).
If the contrast is melodic. voices are not very strong and kinships are used in them. turns, P. approaches imitative, as, for example, in G. Frescobaldi’s four-dark ricercar, where the themes are intonationally homogeneous:

In some cases polyphonic combination, starting as an imitation, in a certain. the moment turns into a contrast and vice versa - from a contrast, a transition to an imitation is possible. Thus, an inseparable connection between the two types of P.
Pure imitation. P. is presented in a single-dark canon, for example. in the 27th variation from Bach's Goldberg Variations (BWV 988):

To avoid monotony in music. The content of the canon of the proposta is built here in such a way that there is a systematic alternation of melodic-rhythmic. figures. During the risposta, they lag behind the proposta figures, and intonation appears along the vertical. contrast, although the melodies are the same horizontally.
Increasing and falling intonation method. activity in the proposte of the canon, which ensures the intensity of the form as a whole, was already known in the strict-style P., as evidenced, for example, by the three-headed. canon "Benedictes" of the mass "Ad fugam" of Palestrina:

T. o., imitation. P. in the form of a canon is by no means alien to contrast, but this contrast arises along the vertical, while its components are devoid of contrast along the horizontal due to the identity of melodies in all voices. In this, it fundamentally differs from contrasting P., which combines horizontally unequal melodic. elements.
The final one-dark canon as a form of imitation. P. in the case of a free extension of his votes goes into contrast P., which, in turn, can go into the canon:

G. Dufay. Duo from Mass "Ave regina caelorum", Gloria.
The described form connects P.'s types in time, across: one type follows another. However, the music different eras and styles is also rich in their simultaneous vertical combinations: imitation is accompanied by contrast, and vice versa. Some voices unfold imitatively, others create a contrast to them or in free counterpoint;

The combination of proposta and risposta here recreates the form of an ancient organum), or, in turn, forms an imitation. construction.
In the latter case, a double (triple) imitation or canon is formed if the imitation extends for a duration. time.

D. D. Shostakovich. 5th symphony, movement I.
The interrelation of imitative and contrasting patois in double canons sometimes leads to the fact that their initial sections are perceived as one-dark imitative, and only gradually do the propostes begin to differ. This happens when the entire work is characterized by a common mood, and the difference between the two propostas is not only not emphasized, but, on the contrary, is masked.
In the Et resurrexit of the canonical mass of Palestrina, the double (two-volume) canon is veiled by the similarity of the initial sections of the proposta, as a result of which at the first moment a simple (one-volume) four-voice canon is heard and only later the difference between the propostas becomes noticeable and the form of the two-volume canon is realized:

How diverse the concept and manifestation of contrast in music is, just as diverse is the contrasting P. In the simplest cases of this type of P., the voices are completely equal in rights, which is especially true for contrapuntal. fabrics in production strict style, where polyphony has not yet developed. theme as a concentrated one-headed. basic expression. thoughts, esp. music content. With the formation of such a theme in the work of J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel and their major predecessors and followers, contrasting P. allows the primacy of the theme over its accompanying voices - counterposition (in fugue), counterpoints. At the same time, in cantatas and works. Other genres in Bach are diversely represented by contrasting verse of another kind, which is formed from the combination of a choral melody with a polygonal melody. fabric of other voices. In such cases, the differentiation of the components of the contrasting voice becomes even clearer, brought to the level of genre specificity of polyphonic voices. whole. In instr. music of later times, the delimitation of the functions of voices leads to a special kind of "P. layers", combining one-headed. melodies in octave doublings and, often, imitations with whole harmonics. complexes: the upper layer is melodic. the bearer of thematism, the middle one is harmonic. complex, lower - melodic mobile bass. "P. Plastov" is exceptionally effective in dramaturgy. relation and is not applied in a single stream for a long time, but in a certain way. production nodes, in particular in the climactic sections, being the result of growths. These are the climaxes in the first movements of Beethoven's 9th symphony and Tchaikovsky's 5th symphony:

L. Beethoven. 9th symphony, movement I.

P. I. Tchaikovsky. 5th symphony, movement II.
Dramatically tense "P. Plastov" can be contrasted with calm-epic. connection is independent. that, an example of which is the reprise of the symphony. painting by A. P. Borodin "In Central Asia", combining two diverse themes - Russian and Eastern - and also being the pinnacle in the development of the work.
Opera music is very rich in manifestations of contrasting P., where dec. kinds of combinations voices and complexes that characterize the images of the characters, their relationships, confrontation, conflicts and, in general, the whole situation of the action.
The variety of forms of contrasting piano cannot serve as a basis for rejecting this generalizing concept, just as musicology does not reject the term, for example, "sonata form", although the interpretation and application of this form by I. Haydn and D. D. Shostakovich, L. Beethoven and P. Hindemith are very different.
In European P.'s music originated in the depths of early polyphony (organum, treble, motet, etc.), gradually taking shape in its own independent. view. The earliest information that has come down to us about domestic polyphony in Europe refers to the British Isles. On the continent, polyphony developed not so much under the influence of English, but because of internal. reasons. First of all, apparently, a primitive form of contrasting singing is formed, which is formed from counterpoint to a given choral or other genre of melody. The theorist John Cotton (late 11th - early 12th centuries), outlining the theory of polyphony (two-voice), wrote: "Diaphony is a coordinated divergence of voices performed by at least two singers so that one leads the main melody, and the other skillfully wanders around to other sounds; both of them at certain moments converge in unison or octave. This method of singing is usually called organum, because the human voice, skillfully diverging (from the main one), sounds like an instrument called organ. The word diaphony means a double voice or divergence of voices ". A form of imitation, apparently, of folk origin - "very early the people knew how to sing strictly canonically" (RI Gruber), which led to the formation of an independent. prod. using imitation. This is the double hexagon. the endless "Summer Canon" (c. 1240), written by J. Fornset, a monk from Reading (England), testifying not so much to maturity as to the prevalence of imitation (in this case, canonical) technology already by the middle. 13th c. Scheme of the "Summer Canon":

Etc.
The primitive form of contrasting polyphony (S. S. Skrebkov refers it to the field of heterophony) is found in an early motet of the 13th and 14th centuries, where polyphony was expressed in the combination of several. melodies (usually three) with different texts, sometimes in different languages. An anonymous motet of the 13th century can serve as an example:

Motet "Mariac assumptio - Huius chori".
The choral melody "Kyrie" is placed in the lower voice, counterpoints to it with texts in Latin are placed in the middle and upper voices. and French languages, melodically close to the chorale, but still possessing a certain eye are independent. intonation-rhythm. pattern. The form of the whole - variations - is formed on the basis of the repetition of the choral melody, acting as a cantus firmus with melodically changing upper voices. In G. de Machaux's motet "Trop plus est bele - Biauté paree - Je ne suis mie" (c. 1350), each voice has its own melody with its own. text (all in French), and the lower one, with its more even movement, also represents a repeating cantus firmus, and as a result, a polyphonic form is also formed. variations. This is typical. samples of the early motet - a genre that undoubtedly played an important role on the way to the mature form of P. The generally accepted division of the mature polyphonic. claims for strict and free styles correspond to both theoretical and historical. signs. Strict-style clothing was characteristic of the Dutch, Italian, and other schools of the 15th and 16th centuries. It was replaced by free-style P., which continues to develop to this day. In the 17th century advanced along with others. nat. school, in the works of the greatest polyphonists Bach and Handel reached in the 1st half. 18th century polyphonic vertices lawsuit. Both styles within their eras have passed the definition. evolution, closely connected with the general development of muses. art-va and its inherent laws of harmony, harmony, and other musical expressions. funds. The border between the styles is the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, when, in connection with the birth of the opera, the homophonic-harmonious style clearly took shape. warehouse and two modes were established - major and minor, to which the whole of Europe began to focus. music, incl. and polyphonic.
The works of the era of strict style "amaze with the loftiness of flight, severe grandeur, some kind of azure, serene purity and transparency" (Laroche). They used preim. wok. genres, instruments were used to dub the songs. votes and extremely rarely - for independent. execution. The system of ancient diatonic frets, in which the lead-in intonations of the future major and minor gradually began to break through. The melody was distinguished by its smoothness, the jumps were usually balanced by the subsequent move in the opposite direction, the rhythm, which obeyed the laws of mensural theory (see Mensural notation), was calm and unhurried. In combinations of voices, consonances predominated, dissonance rarely appeared as independent ones. consonance, usually formed by passing and auxiliary. sounds on the weak beats of the measure or prepared retention on the strong beat. "... All parties in res facta (here - written counterpoint, as opposed to improvised) - three, four or more - all depend on each other, that is, the order and laws of consonances in any voice should be applied in relation to to all other voices," wrote theorist Johannes Tinktoris (1446-1511). Main genres: chanson (song), motet, madrigal (small forms), mass, requiem (large forms). Thematic methods. development: repetition, most of all represented by stretta imitation and canon, counterpuncture, incl. movable counterpoint, contrast compositions of chant. votes. Distinguished by the unity of mood, polyphonic. prod. strict style were created by the method of variation, which allows: 1) variational identity, 2) variational germination, 3) variational renewal. In the first case, the identity of some polyphonic components was preserved. the whole while varying others; in the second - melodic. identity with the previous construction remained only in the initial section, but the continuation was different; in the third - there was an update thematically. material while maintaining the general character of intonations. The variation method extended to the horizontal and vertical, to small and large forms, suggested the possibility of melodic. the changes introduced with the help of circulation, the movement of the movement and its circulation, as well as the variation of the metro rhythm - increases, decreases, skipping pauses, etc. The simplest forms of variational identity are the transfer of finished contrapuntal. combinations to other heights (transposition) or the attribution of new voices to such a combination - see, for example, in "Missa prolationum" by J. de Okeghem, where melodic. the phrase to the words "Christe eleison" is sung first by alto and bass, and then repeated by soprano and tenor a second higher. In the same op. Sanctus consists of the repetition of a sixth higher by the soprano and tenor parts of what was previously entrusted to the alto and bass (A), which are now counterpointed (B) to imitating voices, but changes in duration and melodic. the figure of the initial combination does not occur:

Variational renewal in a major form was achieved in those cases when the cantus firmus changed, but came from the same source as the first (see below about the masses "Fortuna desperata" and others).
The most important representatives of the strict style P. are G. Dufay, J. Okegem, J. Obrecht, Josquin Despres, O. Lasso, and Palestrina. Remaining within the framework of this style, their production. demonstrate different attitude to the forms of music-thematic. development, imitation, contrast, harmony. fullness of sound, they also use cantus firmus in different ways. Thus, the evolution of imitation is visible, the most important of the polyphonic. means of music expressiveness. Initially, imitations were used in unison and octave, then other intervals began to be used, among which the fifth and fourth are especially important as they prepared the fugue presentation. Imitations developed thematically. material and could appear anywhere in the form, but their dramaturgy gradually began to be established. purpose: a) as a form of initial, exposition presentation; b) as a contrast to non-imitation constructions. Dufay and Okeghem almost never used the first of these techniques, while it became a constant in production. Obrecht and Josquin Despres and almost obligatory for polyphonic. forms of Lasso and Palestrina; the second one (Dufay, Okeghem, Obrecht) was originally put forward with the silence of the voice leading the cantus firmus, and later began to cover entire sections of the large form. Such are Agnus Dei II in Josquin Despres' mass "L" homme armé super voces musicales" (see the musical example from this mass in the article Canon) and in the masses of Palestrina, for example in the six-part "Ave Maria". The canon in its various forms (in pure form or accompanied by free voices) was introduced here and in similar samples at the final stage of a large composition as a factor of generalization. In this role later, in the practice of free style, the canon almost never appeared. In the four-headed mass "Oh, Rex gloriae "Palestrina's two sections - Ve-nedictus and Agnus - are written as exact two-headed canons with free voices, creating a contrast of sincere and smooth to the more energetic sound of the previous and subsequent constructions. In a number of canonical masses of Palestrina, the opposite method is also found: lyrical in content Crucifixus and Benedictus are based on non-imitative P., which contrasts with other (canonical) parts of the work.
Large polyphonic forms of strict style in thematic. respect can be divided into two categories: those with cantus firmus and those without it. The first ones were created more often at the early stages of the development of the style, while at the subsequent stages the cantus firmus gradually begins to disappear from creativity. practices, and large forms are created on the basis of the free development of thematic. material. At the same time, cantus firmus becomes the basis of instr. prod. 16 - 1st floor. 17th century (A. and J. Gabrieli, Frescobaldi and others) - ricercara and others and receives a new embodiment in the choral arrangements of Bach and his predecessors.
Forms, in which there is a cantus firmus, are cycles of variations, since the same theme is carried out in them several times. times in different contrapuntal environment. Such a large form usually has introductory-intermedia sections where the cantus firmus is absent, and the presentation is based either on its intonations or on neutral ones. In some cases, the ratio of the sections containing the cantus firmus with the introductory-intermediate ones obey certain numerical formulas (the masses of J. Okegem, J. Obrecht), while in others they are free. The length of the introductory-intermediate and cantus firmus constructions can vary, but it can also be constant for the entire work. The latter include, for example, the mass "Ave Maria" of Palestrina, mentioned above, where both types of constructions have 21 measures each (in conclusions, the last sound is sometimes stretched over several measures), and this is how the whole form is formed: 23 times the cantus firmus is performed and so many same introductory-intermedia constructions. P. of a strict style came to a similar form as a result of lengthy. evolution of the very principle of variation. In a number of productions cantus firmus carried out the borrowed melody in parts, and only in conclusion. section it appeared in full (Obrecht, masses "Maria zart", "Je ne demande"). The latter was a thematic technique. synthesis, very important for the unity of the whole composition. Changes, usual for P. of a strict style, made in the cantus firmus (rhythmic increase and decrease, circulation, rakhodnoe movement, etc.), concealed, but did not destroy the variation. Therefore, the variational cycles appeared in a very heterogeneous form. Such, for example, is Obrecht's "Fortuna desperate" mass cycle: the cantus firmus, taken from the middle voice of the chanson of the same name, is divided into three parts (ABC) and then the cantus is introduced from its upper voice (DE). The general structure of the cycle: Kyrie I - A; Kyrie II - A B C; Gloria - in the AC (in A - in the crawling movement); Credo - CAB (C - in the rake movement); Sanctus - A B C D; Osanna - ABC; Agnus I - A B C (and the same in reduction); Agnus III - D E (and the same in reduction).
Variation is presented here in the form of identity, in the form of germination, and even in the form of renewal, since in Sanctus and Agnus III the cantus firmus changes. Similarly, in the mass "Fortuna desperate" by Josquin Deprez, three types of variation are used: the cantus firmus is first taken from the middle voice of the same chanson (Kyrie, Gloria), then from the upper (Credo) and from the lower voice (Sanctus), in the 5th part of the mass, the upper voice of the chanson (Agnus I) is used, and in conclusion (Agnus III) the cantus firmus returns to the first melody. If we designate each cantus firmus with a symbol, then we get a scheme: A B C B1 A. The form of the whole is therefore based on different types of variation and also involves repetitiveness. The same method is used in Josquin Deprez's Mass "Malheur me bat".
Opinion on neutralization thematic. material in polyphonic. prod. strict style due to the stretching of durations in the voice leading the cantus firmus, is only partly true. In many In some cases, composers resorted to this technique only in order to gradually approach the true rhythm of everyday melody, lively and direct, from long durations, to make its sound, as it were, the culmination of the thematic. development.
Thus, for example, the cantus firmus in Dufay's mass "La mort de Saint Gothard" successively passes from long sounds to short ones:

As a result, the melody sounded, apparently, in the rhythm in which it was known in everyday life.
The same principle is used in the Mass "Malheur me bat" by Obrecht. We present her cantus firmus together with the published source - three-headed. Okeghem chanson of the same name:

I. Obrecht. Mass "Malheur me bat".

J. Okegem. Chanson "Malheur me bat".
The effect of gradual discovery of the true basis of production. was extremely important in the conditions of that time: the listener suddenly recognized a familiar song. The secular lawsuit came into conflict with the requirements for the Church. music by the clergy, which caused the persecution of churchmen against the strict-style P. From a historical point of view, the most important process of releasing music from the power of religions took place. ideas.
Variational Method The development of thematism extended not only to a large composition, but also to its parts: cantus firmus in the form of otd. small revolutions ostinato was repeated, and subvariation cycles were formed inside the large form, especially frequent in the production. Obrekht. For example, Kyrie II of the mass "Malheur me bat" is a variation on the short theme ut-ut-re-mi-mi-la, and Agnus III in the mass "Salve dia parens" is a variation on the short formula la-si-do-si , gradually shrinking from 24 to 3 measures.
Single repetitions immediately following their "theme" form the gender of a two-sentence period, which is very important from the historical point of view. point of view, because prepares a homophonic form. Such periods, however, are very fluid. They are rich in products. Palestrina (see the example on column 345), they are also found in Obrecht, Josquin Despres, Lasso. Kyrie from Op. the last "Missa ad imitationem moduli "Puisque j" ai perdu"" is a period of the classical type of two sentences of 9 bars.
So inside the muses. forms of strict style, principles were brewing, to-rye in the later classic. music, not so much in polyphonic as in homophonic-harmonic, were the main ones. Polyphonic prod. sometimes they included chord episodes, which also gradually prepared the transition to homophony. The tonal relations also evolved in the same direction: the expositional sections of the forms in Palestrina, as the finalist of the strict style, clearly gravitate towards tonic-dominant relations, then a departure towards the subdominant and a return to the main system are noticeable. In the same spirit, the sphere of large-form cadences unfolds: the middle cadences usually end authentically in the key of the 5th style, the final cadences on the tonic are often plagal.
Small forms in strict style poetry were dependent on the text: within the stanza of the text, development took place through the repetition (imitation) of the theme, while the change of the text entailed updating the thematic. material, which, in turn, could be presented imitatively. Music promotion. forms occurred as the text progressed. This form is especially characteristic of the motet of the 15th-16th centuries. and received the name motet form. The madrigals of the 16th century were also constructed in this way, where a form of the reprise type occasionally appears, for example. in the Palestrina madrigal "I vaghi fiori".
large forms P. strict style, where there is no cantus firmus, develop according to the same motet type: each new phrase text leads to the formation of new music. themes developed by imitation. With a short text, it is repeated with new muses. themes that bring a variety of shades will express. character. The theory does not yet have other generalizations about the structure of this kind of polyphonic. forms.
The link between the strict and free style P. can be considered the work of the composers of the con. 16th-17th centuries J. P. Sweelinka, J. Frescobaldi, G. Schutz, C. Monteverdi. Sweelinck often used variational techniques of a strict style (a theme in magnification, etc.), but at the same time, he widely represented modal chromatisms, possible only in a free style; "Fiori musicali" (1635) and other organ Op. The Frescobaldi contain variations on the cantus firmus in various modifications, but they also contain rudiments of fugue forms; the diatonicism of the old modes was colored by chromatisms in the themes and their development. At Monteverdi otd. production, ch. arr. ecclesiastical, bear the stamp of a strict style (the Mass "In illo tempore", etc.), while madrigals almost break with it and should be attributed to a free style. Contrasting P. in them is associated with characteristic. intonations that convey the meaning of the word (joy, sadness, sigh, flight, etc.). Such is the madrigal "Piagn" e sospira "(1603), where the initial phrase "I cry and sigh" is especially emphasized, contrasting with the rest of the story:

In instr. prod. 17th century - suites, ancient sonatas da chiesa, etc. - usually had polyphonic. parts or at least polyphonic. techniques, incl. fugue order, which prepared the formation of instr. fugues stand on their own. genre or in conjunction with the prelude (toccata, fantasy). The work of I. Ia. Froberger, G. Muffat, G. Purcell, D. Buxtehude, J. Pachelbel, and other composers was an approach to the high development of the free style in literary production. J. S. Bach and G. F. Handel. P. free style is stored in the wok. genres, but its main conquest - instr. music, by the 17th century. separated from the vocal and rapidly developing. Melodika - basic. factor P. - in instr. genres was freed from the restrictive conditions of the wok. music (the range of singing voices, the convenience of intonation, etc.) and in its new form contributed to the diversity of polyphonic. combinations, the breadth of polyphony. compositions, in turn affecting the wok. P. Ancient diatonic. frets gave way to two dominant - major and minor. Dissonance, which became the strongest means of modal tension, received great freedom. Mobile counterpoint and imitation began to be used more fully. forms, among which there was an appeal (inversio, moto contraria) and an increase (augmentation), but the rakokhodny movement and its appeal almost disappeared, dramatically changing the whole look and expressing the meaning of a new, individualized theme of free style. The system of variational forms based on cantus firmus, gradually faded away, replaced by a fugue that matured in the bowels of the old style. musical composition fugue is the only kind of fugue that has always been able to withstand all sorts of whims of fashion. Whole centuries could not in any way force it to change its form, and the fugues, composed a hundred years ago, are still as new as if they were composed today, "said F.V. Marpurg.
The type of melody in P. of the free style is completely different than in the strict style. The unrestricted soaring of melodic-linear voices is caused by the introduction of instr. genres. "... In vocal writing, melodic shaping is limited by the narrow limits of the volume of voices and their less mobility compared to instruments," E. Kurt pointed out. "And historical development came to true linear polyphony only with the development of the instrumental style, starting from the 17th century. In addition Togo, vocal works, not only due to the smaller volume and mobility of voices, generally tend to chord roundness. Vocal writing cannot have the same independence from the chord phenomenon as instrumental polyphony, in which we find examples of the freest connection of lines. "However, the same can be attributed to the vocal works of Bach (cantatas, masses), Beethoven ("Missa solemnis" ), as well as to polyphonic works of the 20th century.
Intonationally, the theme of P.'s free style was to a certain extent prepared by a strict style. These are the declamations. melodic revolutions with sound repetition, starting with a weak beat and going to a strong one for a second, third, fifth, and other intervals up, moves to a fifth from the tonic, outlining the modal foundations (see examples) - these and similar intonations later formed in free style "core" of the theme, followed by a "deployment" based on the general forms of melodic. movements (gamma-like, etc.). The fundamental difference between the themes of the free style and the themes of the strict style lies in their design into independent, monophonic-sounding and complete constructions, concisely expressing the main content of the product, while the thematicism in the strict style was fluid, set out in stretto in conjunction with other imitating voices and only in in combination with them, its content was revealed. The contours of the strict style theme were lost in the continuous movement and the entry of voices. In the following example, intonationally similar samples of strict and free style thematics are compared - from the mass "Pange lingua" by Josquin Despres and from Bach's fugue on a theme by G. Legrenzi.
In the first case, a two-headed is deployed. canon, head turns to-rogo flow into general melodic. forms of non-cadence movement, in the second - a clearly outlined theme is shown, modulating into the key of a dominant with a cadence completion.

Thus, despite the intonation. similarity, the thematic of both samples is very different.
The special quality of Bach's polyphonic thematism (meaning primarily the themes of fugues) as the pinnacle of free style P. consists in composure, richness of potential harmony, in tonal, rhythmic, and sometimes genre specificity. In polyphonic topics, in their one-headed. projection Bach generalized modal-harmonic. forms created by his time. These are: the TSDT formula, emphasized in the themes, the breadth of sequences and tonal deviations, the introduction of the II low ("Neapolitan") degree, the use of a reduced seventh, a reduced fourth, a reduced third and fifth, formed from the conjugation of an introductory tone in a minor with other steps of the mode. Bach's thematism is characterized by melodiousness, which comes from Nar. intonations and choral melodies; at the same time, the culture of instr is also strong in it. melodics. A melodious beginning may be characteristic of instr. themes, instrumental - vocal. An important connection between these factors is created by hidden melodic. line in the themes - it flows more measuredly, giving the theme melodious properties. Both intonations. sources are especially clear in those cases when the melodious "core" finds development in the rapid movement of the continuing part of the theme, in the "deployment":

J. S. Bach. Fugue C-dur.

J. S. Bach. Duo a-moll.
In complex fugues, the function of the "core" is often taken over by the first theme, the function of deployment - by the second ("The Well-Tempered Clavier", vol. 1, cis-moll fugue).
Fugue is usually classified as a genus of imitations. P., which is generally true, because a bright theme and its imitation dominate. But in general theory in terms of fugue, it is a synthesis of imitation and contrast P., because already the first imitation (answer) is accompanied by a counterposition that is not identical to the theme, and when other voices enter, the contrast is further enhanced.

Musical encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet encyclopedia, Soviet composer. Ed. Yu. V. Keldysha. 1973-1982 .

It should be clarified that polyphony is a kind of polyphony, which is based on the combination, as well as the development of several melodic lines that are completely independent. Another name for polyphony is an ensemble of melodies. In any case, this is a musical term, but polyphony in mobile phones is quite popular and constantly conquers new frontiers.

The basic concept of polyphony

Polyphony implies a certain polyphony, and the number of such voices can be completely different and range from two to infinity. But in fact, several dozen votes are the standard number, and this option is the most common.

Now we can no longer imagine a telephone that would be needed only for calls. At the moment, the mobile can fully personify its owner. Among other things, the owner will demand a lot from the same phone - the more functions, the better. That is why polyphony is now in demand. Surprisingly, mobile phones are now much “stronger” in their power than even the first computers.

The difference between polyphony and monophony

Now the possibilities of our mobile phones are almost unlimited, but before, the question of simply the need for the existence of polyphony made people think. This was due to the fact that they did not fully realize what exactly she was like.

A monophonic phone can play only one note or voice at a certain moment, but a polyphonic phone can simultaneously combine up to several dozen different notes and voices at the same time.

That is why the most successful explanation would be a comparison of polyphony and monophony. Imagine in your head the sound of the orchestra and the playing of the soloist. Feel the difference? So, polyphony is an orchestra with its bizarre interweaving of melodies from various musical instruments. It is polyphony that can create a full-fledged high-quality sound and satisfy the desires of even the most demanding music lover.

Polyphonic melodies - requirements and formats

The main requirement is to have at least one powerful speaker. And, of course, this concerns the fact that the mobile phone has enough free memory. Now the presence of such is taken for granted for us. Moreover, for better sounding of the melody, you can also use headphones, for example, vacuum ones.

Now there are many sites that can offer you to download a couple of similar pieces of music from the "polyphony melodies" section. Common file types in this case are midi, mmf, wav, and also amr.

The historical beginning of the development of polyphony

It is surprising that polyphony would not have “come” to the phone if it were not for the brilliant creations of Johann Sebastian Bach.

It was thanks to him that in the 16-17 centuries such polyphony could reach the peak of its popularity. It was this composer who created the classical definition of polyphony as a melody in which all voices are equally expressive and also important.

Types of polyphony

Later, certain special genres arose in polyphony. This applies to some polyphonic variations - the chaconne, as well as the passacaglia, inventions and pieces that used imitation techniques. Fugue is considered the pinnacle of polyphonic art.

The fugue is a polyphonic polyphonic melody, which was composed following special and rather strict laws. One of these laws says that this piece of music should be based on a bright and very well-remembered theme. Most often you can find a three-part or four-part fugue.

Musical polyphony is not just the sound of the orchestra, it is important that it plays one melodic line. At the same time, it makes absolutely no difference how many people will participate in such an orchestra.

It often happens that when several people sing the same melody, everyone wants to bring something of themselves into it and give it some shade of individuality. That is why the melody can, as it were, “stratify” and turn from monophony into polyphony. This form of it appeared a long time ago and is called heterophony.

others and also ancient form polyphony is considered tape. It is represented by such a piece of music in which several voices simultaneously perform the same melody, but at different frequencies - that is, one sings a little higher and the other lower.

The first phones with polyphony

The first phone with polyphony appeared in 2000, it was the famous Panasonic GD95. Then it was a grandiose breakthrough in the field of technology, and now it is normal for us if the phone has at least a few polyphonic melodies in its arsenal.

It was East Asia that became a pioneer in this area and did not lose at all. Polyphony is something that even now does not cause much surprise, because it has conquered the whole world. After that, the GD75 appeared, which was just able to show all people that polyphony is enough useful tool. It was this model that for a very long time was in the top of all sales.

Polyphony is an improvement that most manufacturers have been striving for. That is why in the future, there was a novelty from the Mitsubishi company, which was able to demonstrate to the whole public a new model of the Trium Eclipse mobile phone. It was he who was able to qualitatively and, most importantly, loudly reproduce three-tone melodies.

Only after that, Europe joined in such a race of innovations and France was able to tell the whole world about a mobile phone that could support playback of eight-tone polyphony. The only thing that sophisticated music lovers did not like was that it did not sound loud enough.

Polyphony is also what Motorola was striving for, but came to this quite late. She was able to introduce the T720, which supported a similar music format. But the famous company "Nokia", which is popular in our time, then chose the path of improving the characteristics of their phones, in particular, this concerns musical characteristics, using MIDI files.

As you can see, polyphony has gone through a rather long and branched path of improvement and, no matter how strange it may sound, it first appeared in classical musical works. But the year 2000 became a new step in its development - it was then that it first appeared on a mobile phone and won the hearts of many music lovers.