Empire, classicism, baroque and other styles: common features and differences. Some Features of the Critical Period between Baroque and Classicism in Russian Architecture

⁰

If we talk about the art of the 17th century, then here we will see the formation of two major pan-European styles: classicism and baroque. The first was an aesthetic expression of the ideas of absolutism and received its main development in France. His artistic goal is to transform reality through the prism of the classic aesthetic ideal, built on rational foundations. (fourteen)

Classicism - art style, dominating in Europe for almost two centuries - manifested normative art, the ideal examples of which were found in antiquity. The classicists purely mechanically endured the norms ancient culture in the new time. Operating with the concepts of harmony and beauty, he did not look for them in life, but only in the legacy of the past. From a historical point of view, classicism was an unconditional step back in the cultural development of society, and its ideological concentrate was aimed at justifying and exalting the hierarchical structure of society, crowned by an enlightened monarch. The theoretical attitudes of the classicists were striking in their dogmatism and intransigence, in fact, they limited the artist in all respects, dividing genres into high and low, syllable into sublime and common people, dressing the heroes of the new time in an ancient toga and turning the artist’s gaze away from reality, from the true collisions of time. (four)

Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features; no mixing of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the mundane is allowed. In the plastic arts, the premises of classicism were already emerging in the second half of the 16th century. in Italy in the architectural theory and practice of Palladio, the theoretical treatises of Vignola, S. Serlio; they are expressed more consistently in the writings of J.P. Bellori (XVII century), as well as in the aesthetic standards developed by the academicians of the Bologna school.

However, throughout the 17th century classicism, which develops in interaction and polemic with the baroque, only in french art turns into an integral style system, and becomes a pan-European style in the XVIII - early XIX centuries The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the geometrism of emphatically static forms and the logic of planning, the constant appeal to the forms of ancient architecture, while not only following its individual motives and elements, but comprehending its general tectonic patterns was meant. (one)

The main principles of classicism are as follows: a socially significant character, monumentality, imitation of the ancient ideal, moralizing, normativity (manifested in the system of three unities and the hierarchy of genres). The archetype of classicism can be called “crystal”. Figures of classicism: poet Nicolas Boileau, playwrights Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, comedian Jean-Baptiste Moliere, artist Nicolas Poussin. Baroque acts as an antithesis to classic art. It is characterized by the movement of large masses of matter, affect, impulse, pathos. The archetype of the Baroque can be called the “sprouting grain”. Among the representatives, we single out the sculptor Lorenzo Bernini and the artist Peter Paul Rubens. (fourteen)

In contrast to classicism, baroque aesthetics asserted qualitatively different principles of world perception.

Firstly, in the baroque, the tendency based on the awareness of the conditionality of any order, harmony was most visibly manifested, the growing dynamics of thought and feeling was most fully embodied. Under the influence of scientific discoveries, which expanded the horizons of knowledge, posed complex, insoluble questions, pointed to the infinity of being, a person begins to feel the obvious insufficiency of rationalistic thinking.

Secondly, in the aesthetics of the Baroque, the tendency to strengthen the transformed energy, to distance society from the natural world, was transformed. It is no coincidence that Bernini said that nature is weak and insignificant, but to achieve beauty it is necessary to transform it. Art is higher than nature, just as the spirit is higher than matter, as mystical illumination is higher than the prose of life. With the help of a new aesthetics, a person tried to go beyond the limits of the visible world, beyond the limits of the possible. The Neapolitan poet D. Marino clearly expressed the most important principle of the Baroque: the poet's goal is the miraculous and amazing. He must surprise. That is why a new type of attitude asserted expression, impulse, dramatic brokenness of life, ambiguity. It was dominated by energy strong feelings, the world is uncertain, changeable, illogical. The baroque embodied ideas about the infinity of the Universe, the acute ambivalence of human existence. From the point of view of the new artistic logic, the personality was considered as multifaceted, with a contradictory inner world, with an intense emotional life. Aesthetics was built on the collision of man and nature, the ideal and the real, reason and the power of irrational forces. The classical clarity of forms, clarity, semantic evidence, structure, tectonicity in the image of the world is ignored.

In baroque aesthetics, interest is growing not only in perfect manifestations of being that amaze the imagination, but also in disharmonious, fantastic, grotesque and even ugly. The importance of the elements of entertainment and spectacular impact is growing.

Thirdly, the interests of the monarchy, the highest aristocracy, were realized in the Baroque aesthetics. With the destruction of absolute trust in God, the monarch begins to appropriate the function of the absolute. The will of the king is the supreme law for all. Therefore, the objective world that surrounds the monarch should cause quivering reverence. Hence the gold sparkling splendor, pomp, pomposity, excessive luxury, impressiveness, striking the imagination of mere mortals. This radiant grandeur, wealth becomes a synonym for beauty. The palace was no longer a fortress, as in the Middle Ages, but a paradise of earthly pleasures immersed in luxury, which had galleries, huge, spacious halls of mirrors, where tables, chairs, and eating utensils were made of gold. AT holidays thousands of candles shone dazzlingly in gilded halls, reflecting the splendor of rich clothes studded with precious stones. Ceremonial interiors were decorated with multicolored sculptures, moldings, and carvings. The painting of the plafonds created the illusion of open vaults. Baroque gardens, seeking to expand the space of palaces, embodied the pathos of abundance in the form of a variety of aromatic plants, trees, huge fountains. Here, the desire for relaxation from the serious comes through clearly. If in the fountains of the Renaissance the murmur of water was supposed to set you up for reflection, then in the gardens of the Baroque, fountains, cascades, waterfalls were designed to amaze, amaze, captivate with spectacular effects. There are even musical devices in them.

Urban architecture was also formed in the Baroque style: building ensembles, streets, squares, parks began to be considered as a limited aesthetic whole functioning in space, unfolding in a variety of ways before the viewer. The desire for pomposity, splendor led to the fact that the city gates became antique triumphal arches, statues of famous mythological heroes appeared on the market squares. Even confectioners made cakes depicting mythological characters. They tried to convey all the most ornate, bizarre feelings with the help of external forms.

Fourthly, the artistic logic of the Baroque embodied the interests of the Catholic Church. The ideologists of Catholicism had to fight not only non-Christian religions, atheism, but also Orthodoxy, Protestantism, which demanded the democratization of religious relations, cheapening the church hierarchy, opposed the cult of external piety, defending the self-sufficiency of internal religiosity. Intensifying the struggle to retain its influence, the Catholic Church relied on such a tried and tested tool as art. Religious buildings in the baroque style, striking the imagination, glorifying the power of God and his representatives on earth, had the best effect on the inner world of man. As a result, such manifestations as mysticism, exaltation, irrationalism, representativeness, monumentality, versatility, the desire for dematerialization, dramatic intensity of feelings, and, often, tragedy, were entrenched in the ethics of the Baroque, which are necessary for familiarization with transtendent being. The Mass became more and more of an exciting theatrical spectacle. It is characteristic that in this era many Romanesque churches were converted into Baroque ones, as they seemed insufficiently expressive.

The fundamental principle of the classics - proportionality to the human body, restraint were replaced by the exact opposite - inconsistency, grandiosity, fantasticness, expressiveness. (12, pp. 165-169)

In previous articles, the words baroque, classicism applicable to the architecture of buildings in the city of Tver .

The Baroque style is characterized by new complex types of architectural forms, the splendor of details, the complexity of curvilinear forms, now they use new effects, elements of pretentiousness and luxury.

This artistic style originated in Italy, Rome and spread throughout Europe in the early 17th century. Baroque (quaint, wrong, corrupted) with pomp, was the style of the monarchies, which reached its highest development at the beginning of the 17th century. Russia borrowed this first European style from the West and it took root well on Russian soil.

First Representative baroque in architecture and sculpture, it is customary to consider the great classic of this style, the Italian architect Lorenzo Bernini.

The “Eternal City” of Rome owes him the design of its appearance, its design of streets and squares and sculptural compositions still captivate the viewer. The Baroque architect completely abandoned the strict rules and forms of Renaissance architecture.

Now, simple regular shapes, a square, a circle, a cross are being replaced by an oval, other curvilinear shapes, their combination with trapezoid rectangles, etc. In general, many architectural details of the exterior and interior are changing.

Baroque architects widely use the play of light, its contrasts and shadows are used in decorative painting interiors. The ceiling and walls were decorated with frescoes; instead of icons, portraits and landscapes are used in interiors.

Light becomes important component when designing interiors. On the canvases of the paintings, the light, as it were, highlights important details especially brightly, the play of light and shadow gives the picture a special look. The great masters Rubens and Rembrandt achieved perfection in the application of these effects.

In Russia, baroque becomes widespread in the 17th century. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, baroque very quickly reaches its peak. One of the masters baroque in Russia, by right, is Bartholomew Varfolomeevich Rastrelli.

His great creation is the building Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo is a cult representative of the Baroque. He is Italian by origin and has been working in Russia since 1716. For almost half a century, stunning palaces, mansions and various religious buildings have been created in Russia. All Rastrelli's buildings are distinguished by their spatial scope, clarity of volume, and rich sculptural decorations.

All his creations are works of art, as if made from a block of stone by a sculptor. Baroque architectural examples are best preserved to our time. The common features of the Baroque are the desire for movement, the architects use all sorts of tricks - painting the walls under the landscape, mirrors, gilding, the contrast of light and shadow. It is not for nothing that the name of the baroque, from the Portuguese - a pearl of irregular shape.

Classicism in architecture

A new style that originated in the bowels of the baroque - classicism. Classicism (exemplary) - a new artistic style in art, literature of the 17th-18th centuries and architecture.

In the architecture of classicism there is monumentality, geometric forms, clarity of planning, logic, clarity, restraint of color. Classical architecture, this is architecture Ancient Greece and Rome. The greatest work of ancient Greek classical architecture- Athenian Acropolis.

Many rules of classicism originate from the ancient arts. These are appeals to the forms of ancient architecture, as to the standard of harmony, simplicity and rigor of forms. The heyday of classicist architecture in Russia falls on the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century. An architectural masterpiece of Russian classicism is the building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg.

The architectural image of St. Petersburg and Moscow was created by a galaxy of great masters I.V. Starov, V.V. Bazhenov, . M.F. Kozakov. The architecture of classicism reached an unprecedented rise during the reign of Catherine II.

In 1763, a government decree was issued on the regular planning of provincial and county cities; as a result, 400 cities were rebuilt. Magnificent buildings in Tver in the style of classicism and baroque adorn modern streets our city.

I will be glad to your comments.

When we talk about the 17th century. how about literary era, we mean by no means a calendar framework: some new artistic trends declare themselves as early as the end of the 16th century, others, on the contrary, appear no earlier than the 20s.

next century. Since about the 90s. 17th century

such social and cultural processes begin that can be attributed to a new stage - the Age of Enlightenment. However, although it is impossible to point to an exact, single chronological milestone from which the Renaissance ceases to exist and arises new period, the cultural epoch following the Renaissance begins precisely with a keen sense of the changed time, the world, and man: the medieval civilization is being replaced by the civilization of the new time. During this period, according to experts, a modern person begins to recognize himself much more clearly and more than before. Many habits familiar to us, household items, clothes appeared for the first time in the 17th century: for example, it was in this era that people began to use window panes; for the first time, a fork is included in the number of cutlery; the traditional flat sole in women's shoes is being replaced by an invented innovation - the heel. It is in this century that, according to one of the historians, a break with the ancient food tradition occurs: food becomes simpler and at the same time more diverse, coffee and tea, previously unknown or little known, become habitual.

But modern man recognizes himself in culture XVII in. not only by these signs, but, perhaps, even more - by the feeling of the complexity and contradictory nature of life, its deep drama. Optimistic hopes for the transformative possibilities of the Renaissance mind are replaced by an alarming sense of the disharmony of being, the inconsistency and fragility of a person - a “thinking reed”, according to the French philosopher Pascal, in the 17th century. was a turbulent and turbulent period in the history Western Europe. This is the time when religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants continue and the counter-reformation is gaining strength, when the bourgeois revolution in the Netherlands ends, when many European states are involved in the protracted Thirty Years' War, especially destructive for Germany, where the main hostilities took place, this tragic conflict(in 1648), as in England, a bourgeois revolution began, and in France, the Fronde movement, which was opposed to absolutism. So, although the 17th century is often called the century of absolutism, the establishment of more or less stable monarchical states, the process of the formation of nations, did not pass painlessly during this period, on the contrary, it was difficult and contradictory.

However, as if in opposition to the contradictory and unsteady being, a person of the 17th century relies on reason: this is the century of the rapid development of the physical and mathematical sciences, the time of the scientific revolution, which was carried out by such famous scientists as Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Newton. And yet, the most brilliant results of scientific research during this period did not eliminate, but even more exacerbated the feeling of unknowing - the mystery of the inner human life. As one Dutch poet wrote: “We want to comprehend the sum of knowledge!

/Alas! You can't get into yourself." The view of the world and of oneself by a man of the 17th century, a man of modern times, was more sober and bitter than in the period of the Renaissance. Cheerful, optimistic faith in one's abilities, confidence in the harmony of the universe has no place here. The human mind is understood as quite faithful and subtle, but the only and fragile instrument of knowledge. That is why the successes of science were combined with skepticism, confidence was side by side with doubt, rationality was opposed to emotionality, and in general the appearance of this era as a whole was determined by contradictory principles.

A complex, unlike itself, time appears in the work of such different, but equally great artists as Rembrandt and Velasquez, musicians like Schutz and Lully, writers like Calderoy and Molière, Milton and Corneille, philosophers like Descartes and Pascal. Contradictions form the basis of the works of art and literature of that time. The artistic appearance of the era is determined by two main opposing trends: baroque and: classicism. In these definitions themselves, there is already an expressive contrast: if baroque -. a word of obscure origin that has several meanings and is used in several languages, by the way, was used for a long time in the sense of “tasteless, strange, bizarre”, then classicism is a word that came from Latin and means “exemplary”. For a long time, critics perceived baroque and classic literature in this way: the first - as “wrong”, “bad taste” literature, the second - as “correct”, “perfect”. But modern aesthetic tastes are much more tolerant and varied.

Readers have learned to appreciate the baroque whimsicality, strangeness and clarity, the harmony of classicism. Moreover, in both cases we are faced with an aesthetic reaction to the crisis of optimistic Renaissance ideas about man and the world.

Baroque art and literature sought to convey in artistic images the inconsistency and disharmony of human life and therefore achieved not a certain result, but complexity. Baroque literature is not afraid to emphasize the possibility of different interpretations of images.

The Baroque style loves a metaphor built on the convergence of dissimilar objects, an unexpected and paradoxical convergence. There is some similarity with the medieval artistic vision: the world is, as it were, divided in two, into the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the corporeal and the spiritual. Baroque literature conveys a sense of the impermanence of life, perceived as an illusion, like a dream. Man is constantly questioning everything, whether he is in a state of sleep or awake, whether he observes a real or apparent phenomenon, sees a face or a mask. Baroque metaphors - the world-illusion, the world-dream - are combined with a number of other equally important ones: the world-theatre, the world-book. Surrounding reality appears here as a huge encyclopedia of symbols and emblems; a hidden allegorical meaning is found in phenomena and objects and carries a lesson, edification, but baroque literature teaches not directly, but through emotional impact - excitement, surprise. Hence the love of baroque writers for unusual images, for originality.

Among the most significant writers European baroque - the Spanish playwright P. Calderon, the Italian poets Marino and Tasso, the English poet D. Donne, the French novelist O. dYurfe and some others. Classicism of the 17th century, as well as the Baroque, sought to oppose the general feeling of unsteadiness and chaos of being with the orderliness of art.

In the rules and regulations aesthetic creativity the classicists saw a means of overcoming the contradictions of reality. The principle of plausibility was proclaimed, but this principle was understood not as an artlessly truthful depiction of life, but as a recreation of beautiful nature, “built according to the laws of mathematics” (Galileo). At the same time, classicism was focused on a kind of competition. with antiquity: the art of classical antiquity was perceived as an example of exact observance of the unshakable laws of art.

In contrast to the desire to complicate the image and style inherent in the Baroque, classicism wants to achieve simplicity and clarity. The complex phenomena of reality are, as it were, decomposed into simpler ones; tragic and comic, high and low do not collide in a single contradictory image, as in the baroque, but are divorced according to different genres. "High" genres were considered tragedy, ode, epic, "low" - comedy, fable, satire. High genres they usually turned to ancient mythological plots, painted sublimely heroic situations in which noble heroes acted. Comic genres reflected modernity, their characters were more democratic. But both of them set themselves the task of "teaching, entertaining", following the precept of the ancient poet Horace.

Both of them obeyed certain rules, especially strict for dramatic genres: they demanded the observance of the unity of place, the unity of time, the unity of action. Classicism paid great attention to the theory of art; over the course of a century, quite a few treatises on the poetics of classicism were created. The most famous of them was the poetic treatise by N. Boileau "Poetic Art". The most famous classicists of the XVII century. - playwrights Corneille and Racine in France, Ben Johnson in England, German poet M. Opitz.

Baroque and classicism developed unevenly and over the course of a century (baroque prevailed in the first half of the century, classicism prevailed in the second), differently in each country. So, in Spain, of course, the baroque dominated, in France - classicism. But besides the fact that these trends opposed each other, they sometimes fruitfully interacted even in the work of one writer - for example, the English poet Milton, author of the poem "Paradise Lost", is considered an example of a baroque classicist poet. Real life Literature XVII century was not schematic, it reveals a wealth of artistic aspirations and a variety of creative individuals. N.P.

university Russian Academy education

Features of Baroque and Classicism.

The main styles in the art of the 17th century.

Completed by: 2nd year student

full-time department

Special culturology

Yakubova K.N.

Lecturer: Mareeva N.S.

Moscow 2010

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...…3

1. Characteristics of the culture of the XVII century………...……………………………...4

2. Baroque as an artistic trend of the 17th century…………………………..5

2.1. Background and features of the Baroque……………………………………….…..5

2.2. Baroque in architecture…………………………………………………....6

2.3. Baroque in Literature………………………………………………..........8

2.4. Baroque in painting and sculpture………………………………………..9

3. Classicism as an artistic trend of the 17th century ……………...……..10

3.1. Prerequisites and features of classicism………………………………….….10

3.2. Classicism in Literature…………………………………………..….....11

3.3. Classicism in architecture and painting…………………………………12

3.4. Classicism in sculpture…………………………………………….….13

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….14

References……………………………………………………………....15

Introduction

The topic of my test work is "Classicism and Baroque in European culture of the 17th century: ideas and embodiments." This topic was chosen for a number of reasons:

Firstly, baroque and classicism are the two most broad and influential artistic movements of the era under consideration.

Secondly, these areas are complex and dual in nature, which makes this issue one of the most relevant in cultural knowledge.

Thirdly, baroque and classicism represent an outstanding contribution to the world treasury of art, which causes even greater interest in their knowledge.

The purpose of my work is to study such trends in the art of the 17th century as classicism and baroque.

To achieve this goal, I need to solve a number of tasks:

· Consider the general patterns of development of European culture of the XVII century;

· Explore the features of baroque and classicism as the main artistic movements of this period.

1. Characteristics of the culture of the 17th century

The 17th century is the century of Descartes and Port-Royal, Pascal and Spinoza, Rembrandt and Milton, the century of brave sailors, migrations to overseas countries, bold trade, the flowering of natural science, moralizing literature - and ... the age of the wig, reaching its greatest splendor in the 60s, a wig worn by everyone - from the king, the admiral to the merchant.

It is not by chance that the 17th century opens the period of the New Age: it really was the century of a new man, a new science, a new art.

In Europe, the New Age reveals itself in the formation and strengthening of capitalist tendencies, while in England capitalism is most clearly affirmed in reality. At the same time - the period of the first bourgeois revolution, which revealed the tragedy and inhumanity of violent changes in society, and the cruelty of its organizers.

The rationalistic approach to reality stood out and became stronger. leading role the mind begins to play in the world. This was expressed, first of all, in the formation of a new science, both experimental and theoretical. The scientific achievements of the 17th century create the prerequisites for further development fundamental sciences up to the present and form the basis of a new philosophical view of the world.

The 17th century is the initial period in the development of the bourgeois mode of production. This is an extremely difficult and controversial era in the life of European states. The era of early bourgeois revolutions and the heyday of absolutist monarchies; the time of the scientific revolution and the final stage of the Counter-Reformation; the era of grandiose, expressive baroque and dry, rational classicism.

2. Baroque as an artistic trend of the 17th century

2.1. Background and features of the Baroque

Baroque (it. Barosso - strange, bizarre) - one of the main styles in the art of Europe late XVI- middle of the XVIII century. It originated in Italy and spread in most European countries. Embodying new ideas about the eternal variability of the world, the Baroque gravitates toward spectacular spectacles, strong contrasts, the combination of the illusory and the real, to the fusion of the arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music).

The Baroque style was predominantly spread in Catholic countries affected by the processes of the Counter-Reformation. The Protestant church that arose in the Reformation was very undemanding to the external spectacular side of the cult. Spectacle was turned into the main lure of Catholicism, religious piety itself was sacrificed to it. How impossible better goals the return of the flock to the bosom of the Catholic Church was answered by the Baroque style with its gracefulness, sometimes exaggerated expressiveness, pathos, attention to the sensual, bodily beginning, which appeared very clearly even when depicting miracles, visions, religious ecstasies.

But the essence of the Baroque is wider than the tastes of the Catholic Church and the feudal aristocracy, which sought to use the grandiose and blinding effects inherent in the Baroque to glorify the power, splendor and splendor of the state and the habitats of persons close to the throne.

The Baroque style expresses with particular poignancy the crisis of humanism, a sense of the disharmony of life, aimless impulses towards the unknown. In essence, he opens the world in a state of becoming, and the world of the bourgeoisie was then becoming a world. And in this open world, the bourgeois are looking for stability and order. Synonymous with the stability of the place occupied in the world are luxury, wealth for him. It turns out that the Baroque style combines the incompatible: monumentality - with dynamism, theatrical brilliance - with solidity, mysticism, fantasy, irrationality - with sobriety and rationality, truly burgher efficiency.

Center for the development of baroque art at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. was Rome. Park and palace ensembles, cult architecture, decorative painting and sculpture, ceremonial portrait, and later still life and landscape, become the main types and genres of baroque art.

2.2. Baroque in architecture

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large scale colonnades, an abundance of sculpture on facades and in interiors, volutes, a large number of rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters are often found. The domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, as in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of the Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to about 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. A significant contribution was made by D. Fontana, R. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longhena, L. Vanvitelli, P. da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late Baroque-Sicilian Baroque appeared.

The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).

The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France. Spanish baroque, or local churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread to Latin America. His most popular monument is the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most pretentious version, and it is called ultra-baroque.

In France, the baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to French and English variants baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles, along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are considered French Baroque. They really have some features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in gardening art, an example of which is the park of Versailles.

2.3. Baroque in literature

Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poetry form a picture), saturation with rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude to reality.

Baroque literature is characterized by the desire for diversity, for the summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, the desire to study being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). Baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life-dream (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). Calderon's play "Life is a dream" is well-known. Such genres as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudery, M. de Scudery), the real-life and satirical novel (Furetière, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) are also developing. Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties and trends are born: Marinism, Gongorism (Culteranism), Conceptism (Italy, Spain), Metaphysical School and Eufuism (England).

The action of the novels often takes place in fictional world antiquity, to Greece, court cavaliers and ladies are depicted as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, "Astrea"). Poetry flourishes pretentiousness, the use of complex metaphors. Common forms such as sonnet, rondo, concetti (a short poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals.

In the west, in the field of the novel, an outstanding representative is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel "Simplicissimus"), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). V. Voiture (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain) became famous in poetry. In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich, early M. Lomonosov. In France, "precious literature" flourished during this period. It was then cultivated mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons of Paris, the most fashionable and famous.

2.4. Baroque in painting and sculpture

(P.P. Rubens "chained Prometheus") (L. Bernini "Aeneas and Anchises")

So, baroque is one of the main stylistic trends in the art of Europe in the 17th century. Synonymous with the stability of the place occupied in the world are luxury, wealth for him. The Baroque style, with its masterpieces, represents an outstanding contribution to the world's art treasury.

3. Classicism as an artistic movement of the 17th century

3.1. Background and features of classicism

Classicism (from lat. classicus - exemplary) - creative direction, which formed the artistic worldview that took shape in the era of the formation and strengthening of European monarchies and was based on the norms and samples of ancient art. Classicism also refers to periods and trends in the history of European artistic culture, when the forms of ancient art are an aesthetic standard.

The absolutist states could not but be impressed by the idea of stately order, strict subordination, impressive unity. The state claiming to be “reasonable” strove to be seen in it as a balancing, unifying, heroically exalted principle. In contrast to the baroque, classicism expressed the desire for a reasonable harmonious order of life, and these aspirations were inherent not only to monarchs, but also to the people's consciousness, with its ideals of peace, tranquility, and unity of the country. In addition, the attractive side of classicism was its moral pathos, civic orientation.

The aesthetics of classicism focuses on imitation classic patterns: defining for him is the Aristotelian thesis about the imitation of art by nature, she shares an important principle ancient theater about three unities - place, time and action. But in fact it is based on the rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes. Classicism became widespread in absolutist France, as well as in a number of other countries (Italy, Germany, England).

Classicism of the 17th century was closely associated with the noble culture of the French absolutist state. During this period, a normative aesthetics was formed, requiring that art comply with certain laws and rules. The artistic images of classicism were distinguished by their logic and harmony of expression; they were intelligently organized, logically constructed, and generally devoid of individual features. The establishment of strict rules for creativity is one of the characteristic features of the aesthetics of classicism. Piece of art was understood by the classicists not as a naturally occurring organism, but as an artificial, created, created by human hands according to a plan, with a specific task and purpose.

The most holistic cultural and aesthetic program was formed by French classicism. The rationalism of René Descartes (1596-1650) served as his ideological basis.

3.2. Classicism in literature

The French poet Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons, is considered the founder of the poetics of classicism. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. Pierre Corneille wrote verse comedies "Melita, or Forged Letters" (1629, published in 1633), "The Widow, or the Punished Traitor" (1631-1632), etc., the tragicomedy in verse "Sid" (1637), the tragedy "Horace" (1641), "Cinna, or the Mercy of Augustus" (1643), etc. The tragedy of Jean Racine "Andromache" expresses the heroism of opposition to despotic arbitrariness. The tragedy "Phaedra" is distinguished by a high level of psychologism in describing the personality of the heroine.

The "low" genres - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673) also reached high development. French writer Jean de Lafontaine is known as the author of fairy tales, comedies, fables, satirically depicting life in absolutist France.

The French playwright Jean-Baptiste Moliere developed the genre of folk comedy in his plays, ridiculing the idleness and prejudices of the nobility. His characters speak ordinary language. In the comedy "The tradesman in the nobility" in satirical depicts a representative of the third estate, who wanted to be like a nobleman. Molière ridiculed noble idleness, selfishness ("Don Juan"), acquisitiveness ("The Miser"), church hypocrisy ("Tartuffe"). Negative characters are opposed by other heroes of Moliere - resourceful, witty people from the people. The production of his "Don Juan" was condemned by official circles for atheism and freethinking.

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. The English prose of the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.

3.3. Classicism in architecture and painting.

(architectural complex in the vicinity of the city of Potsdam) (Leighton Frederick "Girl")

3.4. Classicism in sculpture

(J.A. Houdon "sculpture of Voltaire")

Conclusion.

At the end of my work, I can draw important conclusions.

The 17th century is an extremely complex and controversial era in the life of European states. Namely during this period - the period of early bourgeois revolutions, the heyday of absolutist monarchies, the scientific revolution, such styles in art as baroque and classicism are born.

Baroque cannot be considered only as an artistic style, it is also a special way of relating to the world and with the world. It is associated with the crisis of the ideals of humanism, the socio-political upheavals characteristic of the 17th century.

Classicism, like baroque, was immanent in the entire culture of the 17th century. If the baroque, with its richness and variety of sensations, gravitates towards sensationalism as a way of sensory knowledge of the world, then classicism requires rationalistic clarity, an ordered method of dividing the whole into parts and sequentially considering each of them.

The purpose of my test was to study classicism and baroque as the main styles of the 17th century. To achieve this goal, the first chapter presented a general description of the culture of this period. In the second and third chapters, I tried to reveal as fully as possible the features of the style trends of baroque and classicism in various areas of art: painting, architecture, literature, sculpture. Summing up, I can say that the goal of the work has been achieved.

So, baroque and classicism are one of the main stylistic trends in the art of Europe in the 17th century. They represent an outstanding contribution to the world's art treasury.

Bibliography

1. Drach G.V. "Culturology: Textbook for students of higher educational institutions" Rostov-on-Don 1999

2. Kravchenko A. I. "Culturology (Textbook for universities)" M. 2003

3. N.V. Shishova, T.V. Akulich, M.I. Boyko (Under the editorship of N.V. Shishova.) "History and cultural studies" M. 2000

four. " European history 17th century "M. 2005

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www. allbest. en/

Introduction

In the development of each style there comes a phase when internal contradictions between the established traditional methods of shaping and the continuously changing requirements of life to the subject, to the content of architectural and design tasks, it is impossible to further resolve using the means of this style. These contradictions accumulate for a long time, little by little slowing down the development of style and gradually leading it to aging, decay, decay. On the ruins of the old, often in close connection with it, a new style slowly, evolutionarily grows. It is this course of events that is most typical of the style change process.

However, a rapid, avalanche-like growth of contradictions is also possible, rapidly causing the need to break down the old and establish a new trend. Such a less common case is the situation that led to the fall of the Baroque architectural style in Russia and the establishment of classicism. At the same time, this situation makes it possible to clearly see some aspects of the process of changing styles, which, with a longer evolutionary path, lose their sharpness of outline.

1. Classicism and Baroque: two styles of the same era

The long coexistence of classicism and baroque can hardly be considered an accident. Such synchronism indicates their interconnectedness, which, of course, does not eliminate significant differences in the features and genesis of the two styles. Baroque was the direct heir of the Renaissance, but the heir was clearly disappointed. Here is what, for example, A.F. Losev about Montaigne: “His “Experiments” are devoid of any system, sprinkled with antique quotes, although from antiquity only the Stoics were close to him, and then only skeptics became close to him.” Montaigne was the forerunner of Descartes, but here we should note the mention of stoicism and skepticism as directly related to the Baroque style. If classicism proceeded from Augustianism in the form of a secularized dualism between nature and man, which should be removed by the monism of submission to some single (but not the only possible) form, then the Baroque proceeded from the universality of the Stoicist Logos, unity in the form of an organism saturated with the breath of pneuma. In the context of the same Augustianism, it emphasized the psychological complexity of the individual personality. In the view of the world, instead of the rigid monophonic hierarchy of universalism inherent in classicism, a polyphonic universalism of plasticity arose, declaring the possibility of multiple variations of the same form or theme. The non-stop running of Bach's fugue accompanies the "Faustian" man. As a phenomenon, the historical baroque preceded classicism, but in terms of a further perspective on the change of styles, it should be recognized as the heir rather than the predecessor of classicism. It is well known that the emergence of the Baroque is associated with the Counter-Reformation. The canons and goals of the Jesuit order found their expression precisely in the Baroque style. Suffice it to recall the main Jesuit temple of Il Gesu in Rome (1568-1584), built according to the project of G. Vignola. This, perhaps, is the first typical project in the history of architecture, implemented in the spaces from Paraguay to Livonia. The main feature of the Baroque - its deceptiveness, simulativeness gave him the opportunity to convert the "soldiers of Jesus" - Protestants, with their inherent cult of labor, into their admirers and enemies. “Baroque - as J. Deleuze notes - invents an endless production or an endless process of work. The problem is not how to complete the fold, but how to continue it, cross the ceiling with it, direct it to infinity "Therefore, complex forms and counterpoint, behind which the symmetry of numbers and functions is hidden, turned out to be able to glorify the virtues of the Puritans (for example, the oratorio G . F. Handel "Judas Maccabee"). Appeal to the Old Testament plots is also characteristic of Baroque literature. "Paradise Lost" by J. Milton and "The Greatest Monster of the World" by P. Calderon. The theme of catastrophe, arising from the collision of free will and the Law, dominates the tragic genre of the era. At the same time, the understanding of the Law is very eclectic: it can be Old Testament, Gnostic and rationalistic. In the latter case, a coincidence with classicism is found. The Gnostic features of the Baroque found their manifestation in the passion for astrology and alchemy, as evidenced not only by the literature of the era. So I. Kepler never hid his commitment to astrology, it even served him as a means to earn a living. I. Newton preferred to remain silent on this score, as well as on his antitrinitarianism. However, the Newtonian program of physics is saturated not only with mathematics (in its rationalistic Cartesian understanding), but also with the spirit of alchemy, from which its creator managed to extract many scientific ideas.

His famous response to the absolutely justified reproaches of the Cartesians in the revival of the magical principle - "I do not invent hypotheses" - is nothing but a truism.

The combination of rigid principles of classicism and flexible baroque can be seen in all subsequent styles. The dominance of one over the other is determined only by tactical considerations, which should ensure the greatest efficiency. “Do you know,” says the Balzacian Vautrin, this “Napoleon of penal servitude,” addressing the young Rastignac, “how they make their way here? It is necessary to crash into this human mass with a cannonball or penetrate like a plague. Classicism can be compared with the first, Baroque with the second. Both of them were the tools of the New Age for the formation of the New Man. So the dominant of classicism can be seen in modernity with its projects of the futurists and Le Corbusier, his pathos of the serious. Postmodern prefers baroque techniques. Switches to the language of binary codes and deterministic chaos. Shows concern for the environment and covers the world with a web of information networks, simulating the "unbearable lightness of being."

2. Russian baroque

Baroque is an era great for its grandiose destructions and equally grandiose creations, it has remained in history turning point development of world art. At the same time, the Baroque art style entered the lives of people in countries such as Italy, Spain or Austria forever. Baroque has become the lifestyle of entire peoples and cultures to such an extent that, for example, Rome, despite its universal significance as the Eternal City, will now always be perceived as baroque. Spanish literature or German philosophy and music in our view, first of all, baroque. Therefore, we will never be able to establish where the Baroque style begins and where it ends. It is only possible to determine the basic principles and patterns of shaping, the trends of historical development. In order to avoid ambiguity and contradictions in the interpretation of the term "Baroque", it is better to use not short, but more detailed formulations. The term "Baroque" in Russia could not be established for a long time. For example, in the middle of the XIX century. Russian criticism, while overthrowing the style of Classicism in architecture, nevertheless, "did not see an alternative to the columns and the dome." The merits of the Neo-Gothic and "Neo-Renaissance" styles were discussed, but the word "Baroque" was avoided. The architect A. Bryullov, during a pensioner's trip to Italy in 1822, was indignant at the "perverted taste" and absurdity of F. Borromini's buildings. Only in the 1880s. the researcher of ancient Russian architecture N. Sultanov introduced the term "Russian Baroque", denoting the pre-Petrine architecture of Russia in the 17th century. Since then, there has been a stable concept, according to which the first phase of the "Russian Baroque" style took shape in the 1640s. and this style developed "in a continuous sequence, up to the works of V. I. Bazhenov that completed it."

According to D. Likhachev's definition, "Russian baroque assumed many of the functions of the Renaissance, because ... the real Renaissance had not been able to fully manifest itself in Russia before." This conclusion follows from the "special density" of the development of artistic styles in Russia, which fundamentally distinguish their spiritual content from Western European prototypes. "Russian Baroque as a whole, fulfilling its revival function, historically opposed the Middle Ages, and not the Renaissance. Hence its cheerfulness and its moderation, alien to the pathos of Western Baroque." The term "Russian Baroque" is not accepted by everyone, in any case it is conditional and should be quoted. In formal qualities, this style is closer to Mannerism; it distinguishes the stages of the "Golitsyn" and "Naryshkin baroque" - the architecture of the "Russian pattern" of the end of the 17th century, the "Petrine baroque" of the first quarter of the 18th century, the "mature Russian baroque" of the Elizabethan time. The latter style was most vividly embodied in the work of the outstanding architect F. B. Rastrelli the Younger in St. Petersburg. During these years, Russia was rapidly catching up with Europe and in the original architecture created by Rastrelli, compositional techniques European Classicism, Baroque and French Rococo (see Elizabethan Rococo). Therefore, the researchers rightly point out that the preservation of the elements of Classicism, the rationalism and pragmatism of the architecture of the time of Peter the Great ensured the ease and naturalness of the transition to Classicism of the second century. half of XVIII century, "almost bypassing the stage of true European Baroque".

3. Classicism in Russia

Continuing the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancient ideals of harmony and measure, faith in the power of the human mind), classicism was also its kind of antithesis, since with the loss of Renaissance harmony, the unity of feeling and reason, the tendency of the aesthetic experience of the world as a harmonious whole was lost. Such concepts as society and personality, man and nature, elements and consciousness, in classicism are polarized, become mutually exclusive, which brings it closer (while maintaining all the cardinal worldview and stylistic differences) to baroque, also imbued with the consciousness of general discord generated by the crisis of Renaissance ideals.

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by a logical layout and geometrism of a three-dimensional form. The constant appeal of the architects of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture meant not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interior of classicism is characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real one. The urban planning of classicism of the 17th century, genetically connected with the principles of the Renaissance and Baroque, actively developed (in the plans of fortresses) the concept of " ideal city", created its own type of residence (Versailles). In the 2nd half of the 18th century, new planning techniques were developed that provide for the organic combination of urban development with elements of nature, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or embankment. The subtlety of laconic decor, the expediency of forms , an inextricable connection with nature is inherent in buildings (mainly country palaces and villas) representatives of Palladianism 18-beginning. 19th centuries

The heyday of Russian classicism belongs to the last third of the 18th - the first third of the 19th centuries, although already at the beginning of the 18th century. marked by a creative appeal (in the architecture of St. Petersburg) to urban planning experience French classicism 17th century (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems). Russian classicism embodied a new, unprecedented for Russia in scope, national pathos and ideological content. historical stage flourishing of Russian secular culture. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plasticity, enrichment and the dynamics of forms inherent in baroque and rococo. The architects of the mature era of classicism (1770-90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classical types of the capital's palace-estate and a large comfortable residential building, which became models in wide construction suburban noble estates and in the new, ceremonial building of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major national contribution of Russian classicism to the world artistic culture. The Russian variant of Palladianism arose in manor construction (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace developed (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism in architecture is the unprecedented scale of organized state urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of the centers of Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl and other cities were formed; the practice of "regulating" urban plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. Turn of 18-19 centuries. marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. Thomas de Gaumont, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planning principles, "classical Moscow" was formed, which was built up in the period of its restoration and reconstruction after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev.

4. Some Features of the Critical Period between Baroque and Classicism in Russian Architecture

architectural classicism baroque urban planning

The characterization of each developed style presents no special methodological difficulties. Another thing is the analysis of the turning point between two specific styles, which is contradictory in its essence. How does such a fracture occur? We are not so much interested in the question - what causes it in a general sense, but in clarifying the basic patterns in the change of styles. In search of such regularities, we will consciously allow for some polemical sharpness of the formulations in order to bring out the proposed point of view more sharply. The transition from baroque to classicism was one of the fastest in changing styles of domestic architecture. The end of the 1750s is still the heyday of the Baroque. The middle of the 1760s was already the time of the wide spread of classicism. For an extremely short period of five to seven years, a complete change in aesthetic tastes takes place. Russian baroque architecture of the 18th century. was a historically conditioned, complex and peculiar phenomenon, which absorbed many traditions of Russian architecture of the 17th century, and a number of features of domestic architecture of the immediately preceding period - that is, the beginning of the 18th century, and the influence of contemporary architecture of the main European countries. These very different components, however, formed a strong alloy, which possessed features of unique originality. Both directions did not yet know their future names at that time, but the essence of stylistic differences, their boundaries are clearly visible in the examples of the best buildings created or designed almost in the same years. The emphatically juicy decorativeness and dynamism of the Baroque forms are opposed by the slightly dry rationalist architecture of early classicism. The most prominent buildings of the Russian baroque - the Winter Palace of B. F. Rastrelli and the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral of S. I. Chevakinskrgo, so typical in their overflowing bravura, were completed by 1762. At the same time, already in 1760 A. F. Kokorinov designs the Pleasure House near Oranienbaum - a work in which the principles of a new direction in architecture dominate. The plan, the silhouette, the entire volume of the building are very compact, with the dominance of horizontal lines emphasized. Details are made in classical forms and proportions. In the same year, A.F. Kokorinov, together with Zh.B. M. Wallen Delamotte create the first version of the project of the Great Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg. In this version, which became the basis for the final decision made two years later, the idea of a majestic business building in its simplicity with a measured rhythm of two-story arcades dissected by modest pilasters of the Tuscan order was already laid down. In 1763-1764. projects are being developed for the Academy of Arts (A. F. Kokorinov and J.-B. Vallin Delamotte), Orphanages in Moscow (K. I. Blank) and St. Petersburg (Yu. M. Felten) - the first structures specially designed for educational purposes. Of these, the building of the Academy of Arts is the best work initial period Russian classicism. Being located on a responsible site, with its main facade facing the main waterway of the capital - the Neva River, it contributes to the architectural organization of a significant segment of the embankment. The building plan is based on a well-thought-out functional learning process for artists: the main working areas are located along the outer perimeter of the building and around a huge circular courtyard, which provides them with good lighting. The surface of the walls is abundantly dissected, but the articulations with clearly defined order proportions are mainly planar in nature. A period of decline, gradual degradation did not precede the change in style. On the contrary, just at the moment of its highest flowering, the baroque turned out to be untenable for solving new problems, and buildings in the classicist style immediately appeared with surprising speed. Such speed in changing styles is not typical. It is, as already mentioned, a distinctive feature of this very turning point - from baroque to classicism - and was caused by a general situation when artificially slowed down historical development began to make up for lost time. The concept of baroque as an integral style ceased not only to dominate architecture, but in general to have any significant influence on its further development. Separate features of the old system, although they appeared for some time in certain elements of the structures of early classicism, were only remnants that were gradually obsolete. Only in the provinces did Baroque forms continue to exist by inertia almost until the end of the 18th century. To historical background Style changes include material and ideological factors. As the most important, it should be noted the significant increase in the military and political power of Russia, accompanied by the rapid growth of its economic potential.

No less important prerequisites for a change in style were the ideas of enlightenment, humanism, the ideals of the natural man, characteristic of all progressive thinking of the 18th century. The call to reason as the main criterion and measure of all achievements was heard louder and louder. The ideas of rationalism have been widely developed since the second half of the century.

In architecture, all these factors led to major changes. The economic prosperity of the country caused a rapid growth in construction in all areas. Changes in the ideological order required a significant expansion of architectural themes, a different figurative content. Never-before-seen themes and tasks arose continuously.

Meanwhile, Baroque architecture was distinguished by thematic narrowness. The sphere of architecture as an art was limited mainly to palace and religious construction. If it was necessary to create structures for a different purpose, then they were developed in the same, close to the palace, ceremonial, highly solemn forms, an example of which is the project of the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg, proposed by F. B. Rastrelli in 1757.

The development of baroque forms along the path of their further complication could continue for quite a long time, but the very range of application of such forms could not be expanded in any way. The possibilities of style came into conflict with reality. This determined his fate.

By the middle of the 18th century, there was a need to create various types of new public buildings or such buildings that did not have any during the Baroque period. artistic value-- for example, industrial, warehouse, commercial buildings. New tasks also arose in housing construction. Finally, the city as a whole as a social unit received a significantly different characteristic than before and, in this regard, required a different planning and volumetric solution.

All this growth of demands took place on the scale of a gigantic country.

Traditional creative methods could not cope with such tasks. But this kind, although simpler, tasks already arose before architects at the beginning of the 18th century. The architecture of the time of Peter the Great is characterized by clear and practicable decisions based on clear rationalistic principles. The traditions of rationalism appeared in Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century, of course, not for the first time. These traditions have lived for a long time, but there were epochs that were especially favorable for their development, and such times when rationalism existed latently in architecture as a residual phenomenon of the previous period. Russian baroque of the second quarter of the 18th century. also did not escape the influence of the Petrine architecture that preceded it, and the rationalism of the latter entered some separate elements into the stylistic features of a direction that was opposite to it in essence.

Even in the work of the leading baroque master Rastrelli, elements of rationalism can be seen. So, for example, the fantastically rich and complex in form decoration of the palace buildings of this architect does not violate the simplicity and clarity of plans.

In the works of D. V. Ukhtomsky and S. I. Chevakinsky, rationalistic tendencies are even more noticeable. It is worth remembering Ukhtomsky's design for the Invalid Home in Moscow, or the belfry of St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral in St. Petersburg, whose clear clarity of architecture is so different from the exuberant gaiety of the cathedral itself that some scholars did not even want to recognize it as the work of Chevakinsky. Both architects were students of I.K. Korobov, whose activities partially coincided with the Baroque period. However, among the masters of this time, Korobov, one of the glorious pensioners of Peter the Great, retained the most rationalistic orientation of his work. It was through Korobov that the traditions of rationalism were continued in the works of his numerous students and in the work of the youngest of them, A.F. Kokorinov, they were revived in a different artistic quality, rethought in the spirit of the tasks of the new architectural direction.

Rationalism as a striving for clarity, comprehensibility, logicality of the architectural image - everything as a whole and its individual components - became the main factor in the formation of a new style. His principles demanded a particularly harmonious, logically integral artistic concept. Such a concept had already been created earlier in the classical schools of architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. The architects began to carefully study the heritage of antiquity (in its Roman interpretation, the only one available at that time) and the Renaissance. Close attention to the classics became, as it were, a secondary factor in the formation of the architecture of early Russian classicism.

Naturally, in the Russian conditions of those years, the study of the classical traditions of shaping could only take place through acquaintance with the theoretical works of Vitruvius, Andrea Palladio, Vignola, and with uvrazh, in which measured drawings or sketches of architectural monuments were placed. The insufficiency of this method of acquaintance was realized very soon. It is characteristic that if the young B. F. Rastrelli at one time traveled abroad no further than Germany, where he only got acquainted with the experience of contemporary German architecture, then already in the first half of the 1750s the idea arises of sending the promising gezel Kokorinov to Italy for the study of the architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. Since 1760, the newly founded Academy of Arts began to regularly send its best pupils abroad, and charged them with the duty of familiarizing themselves with the monuments of architectural classics.

Finally, another factor influencing the formation of a new style in Russia was the connection of Russian architecture with the contemporary architecture of other countries, among which France was at that time the leading country in all areas of ideology.

For Russian architecture, links with French architecture became very significant as early as the first quarter of the 18th century, when J.-BA Leblon, invited to Russia, created here not only one of the fundamental planning projects for St. Petersburg, but also developed types of exemplary houses, in many ways determined the physiognomy of the young Russian capital.

The tendencies of rationalism, characteristic of that branch of French architecture, of which Leblon was a representative, coincided with the main direction of Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century. The change in the orientation of architecture in the post-Petrine period also led to a change in the nature of ties with French architecture. Rococo tricks began to enjoy the success, which in France itself by that time had suffered a serious defeat. Competition for the project of the main facade of the Church of St. Sulpicia in Paris heralded a turn in the development of architectural ideas. It was at this competition that the principles of Rococo decorativeism, brought by J. O. Meissonier to the highest degree of sophistication, were rejected, and preference was given to the strict and classically clear composition of J. N. Servandoni, which was then, basically, implemented in 1733-- 1745

Development public life in the 1750s led Russian architecture to focus on the advanced achievements of French architects. An important stage in the victory of classicism in France was the competition for the creation of Place Louis XV in Paris. As a result of several consecutive rounds of the competition (late 1740s - early 1750s), the project of J.A. Gabriel won, which marked the approval of new views on urban planning principles. For the first time in world history, the city square was decided in relation to and connection with the entire space of the city.

The success of J.-J. Soufflet at the St. Genevieve in Paris and Gabriel's construction of the intimate palace mansion Petit Trianon in Versailles already meant the final victory of the new trend in French architecture.

In Russia, the works of architectural theorists M. A. Laugier, J. F. Blondel, and others were studied with interest and attention. Blondel's idea was too obvious French national flavor and was still far from the consistent implementation of classical forms, which, among other reasons, played a role in the rejection of the project. But this was already an accident in the general course of history. From the end of the 1750s, it was the advanced French architecture that became closest to Russian architecture in terms of goals and aspirations.

Using the example of the transition from baroque to classicism, one can try to deduce some general patterns in the change in architectural styles.

The newly emerging style meets new requirements, and in this sense its path is always original and unexplored. The more innovative this neophyte is, the broader must be the traditions on which he relies. But at the same time, the emerging direction relates with quite understandable antagonism to the methods of its predecessor, which at a certain moment revealed their inconsistency. Therefore, each new style seeks support in the traditions of art not of the immediately preceding period, but of a more distant past, and above all in the traditions of the “grandfathers”. After all, the previous style also denied the direction that existed before it, which is why every time the "grandfather" traditions become the main source of borrowing.

Indeed, the Russian baroque architecture of the second third of the 18th century is much closer in spirit to the buildings of Russia at the end of the 17th century than to the architecture of the era of Peter I.

For the same reason, the desire for enlightenment, utilitarianism and all-encompassing rationalism, characteristic of Petrine architecture, found its independent continuation in the architecture of classicism. Such an original building for the complex scientific institutions, as the Kunstkamera, conceived under Peter I, did not receive any further development during the Baroque period as a new type of building, or even repetitions, even simplified ones. Meanwhile, the architecture of classicism began precisely with the creation of a building of this kind: the building of the Academy of Arts combined the highest art center, a museum, an educational institution of the "three most noble" arts with a boarding school and even a theater attached to it, artists' workshops and residential apartments for teaching staff.

The Petrine era did not pay much attention to palace buildings, but gave great importance utilitarian construction, raising it to the level of real architecture. The Admiralty in St. Petersburg was decided not just as an industrial enterprise combined with a defensive structure, but as a monument to the naval power of Russia. The building was very low and the material - half-timbered - was not at all monumental, but the very idea of a wide, 400 meters spread structure, marked in the center by a tower with a spire, was the idea of \u200b\u200bgreat architecture.

One of the great masters of the Russian Baroque, S. I. Chevakinsky, in his position as an architect of the Admiralty Colleges, designed and built many utilitarian structures for the domestic fleet. But among these works of his there are no buildings similar to the Admiralty, significant in their architectural design. Having built the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral, Chevakinsky created a joyful, jubilant hymn by means of architecture. Nevertheless, in utilitarian buildings, the era did not require anything from him but strength and usefulness.

It is characteristic that in the early 1760s, having started the project of a timber warehouse building on the island of New Holland in St. Petersburg, Chevakinsky developed a new technology for storing timber, and also created a construction plan, but did not cope with the figurative solution of the facades, and this part of the work was entrusted to the architect of the new direction - Wallen Delamotte.

Rationalism, which forms the basis of the concept of classicism, also found an echo in the traditions of architecture of the early 18th century, although, as noted earlier, Russian baroque architecture itself used these traditions to some extent.

Here I would like to emphasize that the most important traditions never die. They develop in an upward spiral. With each subsequent turn, part of the movement, relatively speaking, passes in the shadow. The prevailing style at that time only tolerates such a "shadowed" tradition, and often uses it even in the opposite sense.

Conclusion

Each newly emerging direction is characterized by an antagonistic attitude towards its predecessor. Moreover, one can apparently argue that the birth of a new style is accompanied by an obligatory rejection of the directly close traditions of the past. On the other hand, the new style is widely based on deeper traditions, in the creative understanding of which the basis for its further development is laid. What is the difference between baroque and classicism

In the art and architecture of the 18th century, two fundamental styles prevailed - baroque and classicism. It is no coincidence that they coexisted side by side for a long time, in the same era. It is impossible not to note their close relationship, although there are also a lot of characteristic features inherent only in a particular direction. What is the difference between baroque and classicism, and how, when looking at a painting or a building, to determine what style they belong to? What is baroque and classicism

Baroque is an artistic style that originated in Italy and was widespread in European art until the middle of the 18th century.

Classicism is an artistic style characteristic of the art of Europe and especially pronounced in the second half of the 18th century.

Comparison of baroque and classicism

AT what is the difference between baroque and classicism?

Baroque and classicism are antagonistic trends, although they also have many common features, because they were formed in the same era.

Characteristic features of the style		Classicism
	Designed to demonstrate luxury and wealth. Increased emotionality. Dynamism. The essence of life is in movement and in the struggle of changeable elements. Irrationalism, mysticism, expression. Emphasized theatricality, decorativeness, exaltation.	The embodiment of the best examples of antiquity. Calmness and sophistication. Clarity and conciseness. noble simplicity. Striving for perfection. Rationalism. Following the principles of order, uniformity, consistency.
In architecture	Pretentiousness and complexity of forms. Parade and pomposity. The popularity of spatial illusions that distort the proportions of the building. Giant sizes. The play of light and shadow.	Feeling great. A clear layout, scale and severity of forms. Balance of parts, harmony of proportions. Schedule regularity. Functionality, orderliness.
In the interior	Splendor, grandeur, juiciness, spatial scope. The predominance of curved lines, varnishing. The abundance of decor and inlays. Rich finishes (gold, marble, mosaic, bone). Sophisticated ornate ornament. The furniture is very massive and complex in form, replete with decorations.	Clear geometric shapes. Restraint in decor. Use in the decoration of expensive materials, but no frills. Simplicity of lines, harmony of color combinations. Ornament with antique motifs, strict and geometric. Maximum functionality and constructiveness of furniture.
In art	composition dynamism. Interest in triumphs, ecstatic manifestations of nature. Grandiosity, dramatic tension.	Balanced composition, logical development of the storyline. Absence of strong emotions.

TheDifference.ru determined that the difference between Baroque and Classicism is as follows:

1. Baroque differs by violence and dynamism of forms. Classicism is characterized by harmony and balance of all details.

2. Baroque focuses on luxury, splendor, brilliance, pomposity, richness of decoration. Classicism appreciates restraint and simplicity of lines, the decor is used very carefully.

3. Baroque uses spatial illusions that distort proportions and give scale. Classicism is based on the harmony of proportions, originating in the ancient tradition.

Hosted on Allbest.ru

...