The world-famous chivalric Romance of Tristan und Isolde gained popularity in a stylized retelling by the French writer Joseph Bedier (1864‑1938).

A love drink accidentally drunk gives rise to passion in the soul of Tristan and Isolde - reckless and immeasurable. Heroes understand the illegality and hopelessness of their love. Their destiny is an eternal return to each other, united forever in death. From the graves of lovers, a vine and a rose bush have grown, which bloom forever, embracing.

Of all the works of medieval poetry among the peoples

In Western Europe, the most common and beloved was the story of Tristan and Isolde. She received her first literary processing in the 12th century in France, in the form of a poetic novel. Soon this first novel caused a number of imitations, first in French, and then in most other European languages ​​- in German, English, Italian, Spanish, Norwegian, Czech, Polish, Belarusian, modern Greek.

For three centuries, the whole of Europe was reading the story of a passionate and tragic passion that connected two lovers both in life and in death. We find countless allusions to it in other works.

The names of Tristan and Isolde have become synonymous with true lovers. Often they were given as personal names, not embarrassed by the fact that the church does not know saints with such names. Separate scenes from the novel were reproduced many times on the walls of the hall in the form of frescoes, on carpets, on carved caskets or goblets.

Despite such a huge success of the novel, its text has come down to us in a very poor condition. From most of the above-mentioned processings, only fragments have survived, and from many, nothing at all. In these troubled ages, when printing did not yet exist, manuscripts perished in colossal numbers, because their fate in the then unreliable book depositories was subject to the accidents of war, looting, fires, etc. The first, most ancient novel about Tristan and Isolde also perished entirely.

However, scientific analysis came to the rescue here. Just as a paleontologist, using the remains of the skeleton of some extinct animal, restores all its structure and properties, or just as an archaeologist restores the character of an entire extinct culture from several shards, so the literary critic-philologist can sometimes restore its plot outlines, its main images and ideas, partly even its style, by reflections of a lost work, by allusions to it and its later alterations.

Such work on the novel about Tristan and Isolde was undertaken by the prominent French scientist of the early 20th century, Joseph Bedier, who combined great knowledge with a subtle artistic flair. As a result of this, a novel was recreated by him and offered to the reader, which is both scientific, educational and poetic value.

The roots of the legend of Tristan and Isolde go back to ancient times. French poets and storytellers received it directly from the Celtic peoples (Breton, Welsh, Irish), whose stories were rich in feeling and fantasy.

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4. NOVEL ABOUT TRISTAN AND IZOLD BERUL AND VOL.
DISPUTE WITH THEM IN THE WORKS OF CHRITIEN DE TROYS

The verse novel about Tristan and Isolde has been preserved, as is well known, in the form of incomplete versions written by the Norman trouveurs Berul and Tom, as well as two small poems - the Bernese and Oxford editions of Tristan the Holy Fool. In addition, the lyric-epic "Lay o honeysuckle" by Mary of France and a later prose novel about Tristan have been preserved.

Since Berul's version is more archaic, but at the same time some of the realities mentioned in it did not exist before 1191, and, therefore, at least part of Berul's text was written after the clearly less archaic version of To "ma (created somewhere in the 70s or 80s), a hypothesis arose about the existence of two authors for different parts of the manuscript attributed to Berul (in the first part there is more connection with the folklore tradition and with chansons de geste, in the second - more bookishness, more individualized rhymes, more aesthetic refinement; between parts there are plot contradictions, see: Raynaud de Lage, 1968); this hypothesis, however, did not win recognition. An even more archaic French version is restored on the basis of the surviving German translation of Eilhart von Oberge, and the incomplete text of Tom is reconstructed with the help of a German - albeit very creative - arrangement made at the beginning of the 13th century by Gottfried of Strasbourg, and the Norwegian saga of Tristram and Isonda (20s of the 13th century), also dating back to Tom. Thomas mentions a certain Brery as an expert on the legend of Tristan, and, apparently, the same Brery (Bledhericus, Bleheris) is spoken of by Giraud de Barry in the "Description of Cumbria" and one of the successors of Chretin's "Tale of the Grail"; it is possible that Brery was a bilingual Celtic-French narrator and that his version that has not come down to us was on the verge of folklore and literature, on the transition from the Celtic saga to the French novel. In reconstructing the French "archetype" to which all the main variants could be traced, J. Bedier relies mainly on the text of Berul, and Schepperle on Eilhart von Oberge, but both also draw on other materials, in particular, the bodied late prose version.

Since the time of J. Bedier, as we know, it has been customary to oppose the “general version” and the “courtly”, referring to the first Berul, the French source of Eilhart and the Bernese “holy fool Tristan”, and to the second - Thomas (and Gottfried), as well as the Oxford “Tristan the holy fool”. However, this habitual division is not recognized by everyone. For example, P. Jhonin finds in "Berule much more elements of courtesy than in Tom, and in Tom - some obvious anti-court features (Jonin, 1958), E. Köhler and H. Weber (Köhler, 1966; Weber 1976) see in Tom the spokesman not of a courtly, but of a "bourgeois" point of view. For our purposes (comparatively typological) a novel about Tristan and Isolde is interesting primarily as a whole, because the whole set of variants represents an early stage in the development of the Breton and generally courtly novel.In the process, it should be noted that I understand the courtly novel (a synonym for the knightly romance) as something broader than works strictly expressing the courtly doctrine of the troubadours or Andrei Chaplain.The authors of courtly novels can deviate from this doctrine, argue with it or strongly modify it, but at the same time remain authors of the kurtu Moreover, it should be recognized that the artistic achievements of the courtly novel, which have a genuine universal sound, are associated with going beyond the framework of the proper courtly doctrine; they either have not yet expressed it with all its fullness and accuracy, have not been able to subordinate the traditional plot to it (the novels about Tristan and Iseult), or have already outgrown it, realizing its limitations and insufficiency (The Tale of the Grail by Chrétien de Troyes). In addition, actually courtly concepts like the Provencal fin "amors were developed in connection with the poetic practice of lyric poets and were used in everyday life in the form of secular games, conditional etiquette, etc., but, transferred to the epic expanse of the novel, they could not but reveal their well-known utopia to one degree or another, not come across unforeseen contradictions, the need to supplement and change this doctrine itself. The foregoing, however, should not detract from the importance of chickens concepts for development, novelistic problems, elements of psychological analysis, etc. (see above about medieval theories of love as an ideological premise of courtly literature.) Returning to the novels about Tristan and Iseult, I would like to say first of all that here the traditional plot dominates in a certain way over its interpretation in one version or another, that both Beroul and Thomas followed the traditional plot to a much greater extent than Chrétien and some other later authors.

The most remarkable thing about the novels about Tristan and Isolde is their plot itself, which directly expresses the miracle of individual love (metonymized or metaphorized by a witch's drink) as a tragic element that exposes the “inner” person in the epic hero and opens the abyss between the element of feelings and the norms of social behavior, between the personality and the social “persona”, personality and the generally accepted necessary (there is no doubt in the novel about its necessity) social order.

Just as in the novels of the ancient cycle (the direct influence here is negligible - see: Zhonin, 1958, pp. 170-175 - in this sense, the novels about Tristan are on the same level with them), love is depicted here as a fatal passion, as a dictate of fate, before which a person is powerless, and as a destructive element for those who love and for their environment. Even when the epic hero is “obstinate” or “violent” (which cannot be said about the restrained Tristan), he always remains within the framework of his social persona, does not come into conflict either with himself or with the rooted social order. Tristan, before he drank the fatal drink and fell in love with Iseult, was a genuine and, one might say, exemplary epic hero - the slayer of monsters (Morholt and the dragon), the defender of the interests of his native country, who does not want to pay tribute to enemies, the ideal vassal of his uncle-king and his worthy heir.

I have already noted that the first (introductory) part of the novel has the character of an exemplary “heroic tale” and is not a later addition to the core of the plot, but that epic element from which the plot of the novel gradually crystallized. As soon as Tristan fell in love with Isolde, he completely changed, became a slave to his passion and a slave to his fate.

In the future, all his "exploits" serve only to save Isolde and himself, to protect his illegal relations with her from surveillance by the curious, intrigues of ill-wishers, persecution by Mark, the king and Isolde's lawful spouse. Such is Tristan's heroic leap, saving him from execution, victory over Isolde's kidnappers, spies, etc. Tristan receives the last, mortal wound in battle, to which Tristan the Small forced him, appealing to Tristan's love for Isolde. In the second (main) part of the novel, we see Tristan not so much with a sword as a valiant knight in battles and fights, but as a participant in ingenious "novelistic" tricks for the sake of arranging a meeting with Isolde or misleading Mark, more than once in various clown guises (a leper, a beggar, a madman), serving as a disguise. The courtiers and vassals of the king, hostile to Tristan, meet an uncompromising rebuff from Tristan and are described with a certain antipathy on the part of the narrator, but Tristan and Isolde, although they constantly deceive him, experience a certain reverence for Mark, Mark, in turn, loves not only Isolde, but also Tristan, is glad of the opportunity to be condescending to them, is ready to trust them, but is forced to reckon with the environment, which, as it were, stands guard over him honor.

Tristan and Isolde recognize the inviolability of their social statuses and do not in the least encroach on the social order as such. On the other hand, they do not feel repentance as sinners before God, since evil in itself is not included in their intentions (emphasis on subjective intention in evaluating sin is characteristic of greater tolerance of the 12th century), and they feel subordinate to a higher power (on the interpretation of sin and repentance in the novel, see: Payen, 1967, pp. 330-360). At the same time, not only the good hermit Ogrin sympathizes with sinners (in Berul's version), but the "God's judgment" is inclined in their favor, despite all the ambiguity of Isolde's oath.

Thus, the concept of love as a fatal and destructive force triumphs, in relation to which the main actors, i.e. Tristan, Isolde, Mark, as well as Tristan's wife, Isolde Belorukaya, are victims. The fact that it is precisely the tragedy of individual passion that is depicted here is emphasized precisely by Tristan’s unsuccessful marriage: the coincidence of the names of Isolde the Blond and Isolde the Beloruka, combined with the impossibility for Tristan to forget his mistress in the arms of his wife and even fulfill his marital duties - all this indicates the hopelessness of replacement in the presence of such an individual passion. The incompatibility of passion with the substantial conditions of life, its action as a chaotic force that destroys the social cosmos, has a natural consequence of the tragic death of suffering heroes; only in death; they can finally connect.

The second, purely "romantic" part of the narrative is a direct antithesis of the first - epic; there is no place for their synthesis.

From what has been said, the meaning of the plot itself is quite obvious, regardless of the additional strokes of one or another variant. ancient epic plots, and here the plot itself constituted the main level of expression. In order to change the basic meaning of the novel, it was necessary to "change its plot frame quite significantly, neither Berul nor Thomas did this; Chrétien de Troyes subsequently decided to experimentally break the plot in order to change the whole meaning.

The plot of Tristan and Iseult, as we know, has specific Celtic roots, in its Celtic prototypes there was already a “triangle” (with an emphasis on the opposition of the old king and the young lover) and love magic, fatally subjugating the hero, but there was not. more images of feelings; and the conflict of a person's spiritual life with the social context of his life. We cannot, therefore, rule out the additional influence of love lyrics, in which the discovery of the "inner man" took place earlier than in the novel. A similar general situation in the novel about Tristan and Isolde and in the Provençal lyric poetry draws our attention, where high love, as a rule, was addressed to someone else's wife, most often the wife of a high-ranking person, sometimes the overlord of a knight-poet.

We know the theory of Denis de Rougemont (see: Rougemont, 1956) "That the plot of Tristan and Isolde is a courtly myth, illustrating the deliberate, exalted love-suffering of the troubadours, supposedly hiding the secret attraction to death; the sword lying in the forest between Tristan and Isolde, according to Rougemont, is a ban on the reality of love. (There is an attempt by another author in the spirit of the courtly assag, that is, a kind of ritual of innocent embraces by a lady, to interpret Tristan's relationship with the second Isolde, see: Payen, 1967, p. 360.) V. M. "Kozova also sees elements of courtesy in the plot itself, partially following Rougemont in his generally excellent introductory article to the Soviet edition of the famous compilation by J. Bedier (Kozova , 1967). Meanwhile, Rougemont not only in vain connects the courtly poetry of the troubadours with the dualism of the Cathars; he obscures the features of joy in the attitude of the troubadours and ascribes to them the concept of love-death, which is characteristic not of the troubadours, but of the earlier Arabic lyrics, which hardly influenced Tristan and Isolde (the romantic poem Vis and Ramin by Gurgani, in which Zenker and Galle saw the source of Tristan and Isolde, is also completely devoid of these pessimistic notes).

In contrast to the poetry of the troubadours, there is no abstinence in relations with a lady in Tristan and. Isolde" is out of the question, and the episode with the sword lying between them should be attributed to the relic sphere (perhaps to the motif of Tristan - deputy in matchmaking; cf. Siegfried in "Nibelungen"). Tristan, in contrast to courtly norms, abstains in relations with his wife and does not abstain in relations with his beloved, although the Platonic sublimation among the early troubadours was not so obvious, but the courtly doctrine itself was not yet fully established. Some analogy between the early troubadours and "Tristan and Isolde" is possible, but such an analogy is rather not the fruit of influence, but a reflection of the general situation - the emancipation of love feelings outside of marriage, which was usually the fruit of various "feudal" calculations. The very image of love as a spontaneous force, purely asocial, leading to tragic conflicts, is completely alien to the courtly doctrine with its idea of ​​the civilizing and socializing role of loving service to a lady. The well-known naivety in the depiction of the newly discovered miracle of individual passion is a special charm of the story of Tristan and P. Zhonin (Jonin, 1958) made an attempt to single out from the "general version", hypothetically close to the "prototype" (if such existed at all), Beroul's text, opposing it. oilhart von Oberge, or rather, the lost French original, from which the last German translation was made. according to Jhonin, Beroul not only follows tradition, but also directly reproduces the mores and customs of his time, for example, the norms of God's judgments and the status of a leper village (cf. P. Le Gentil's assumption about Beroul's reflection of high-profile adultery scandals of the 12th century; see: Le Gentil, 1953-1954, p. 117); unlike Eilhart, he devotes some space to the description of feelings, depicts Isolde not as a passive accomplice of Tristan, but as a bright personality, all the time taking the initiative; against the backdrop of brutal persecution? lovers flash bright pictures of hunting, games and holidays, at which Isolde enjoys universal reverence. Berulya. However, in reality, the manifestations of Berul's courtesy are very difficult to perceive in order to talk about them seriously.

P. Noble correctly notes that the inevitable elements of "courtiness" appear only in Arthurian episodes (see Noble, 1969; cf. also: Mikhailov, 1976, I, pp. 676-677). In this connection, we also note an attempt to find some traits of courtesy in Eilhart (see: Fourier, 1960, p. 38).

Berul's epic motifs come out very clearly - (the barons surrounding Mark and their relationship with the king directly resemble the atmosphere of chansons de geste); he, like Eilhart, has many secondary characters and episodes. The most important feature of the "general version" is the giving of paramount importance to the drink of love as the main source of fatal love and, at the same time, the limitation of its duration (for Eilhart - four, and for Berul - - three years). When the term: the action of the drink is nearing its end, Tristan and Isolde, who are at that time in exile in the forest of Morois, begin to feel the hardships of forest life, the abnormality of their situation, begin to think about the insult inflicted on Mark, feel longing, dream of restoring the “normal” position, the normal social status of all participants in the drama. The role of an adviser and partly an assistant in reconciliation with Mark is played by a hermit: Ogrin, full of sympathy for unwitting sinners.

Does such an assignment - of responsibility to the fatal drink and fate - serve as a motivation for negative coverage of images? courtiers pursuing lovers, quarreling Mark with his nephew - heir Tristan. However, the narrator's indulgence towards Tristan and Isolde does not weaken even when Isolde whitewashes herself. an ambiguous oath before, "God's judgment" (she was only in the arms of Mark and the beggar who carried her through the water - it was Tristan in disguise), and even when the dates are resumed. As if the sufferings of the heroes themselves continue to evoke sympathy. Berul, like Eilhart, narrates the plot as a narrator, without trying to create a single, strictly consistent interpretation of it.

A more rigorous and, apparently, really courteous in its intentions interpretation of the plot is offered by Toma in his novel about Tristan.

A. Fourier (Fourier, 1960, pp. -2\-PO) insists on the historical-geographical "realism" of Thomas, who not only inserted the history of Tristan into the framework of the quasi-historical scheme of Geoffrey and Vasa, but also preserved the historical geography of the 12th century. and reflected the political relations of Henry II Plantagenet with the Celtic lands, with Spain, etc. He presented Mark as the English king (but he had to abandon Arthur, who appeared in Berul's version). In this regard, however, there are no sharp differences with Berul, who vividly conveyed some features of everyday life, customary law, etc. More important is the well-known rational compositional ordering, the elimination of some contradictions, the liberation from some minor characters and episodes, and a somewhat greater concern for credibility. Based on the surviving part of the text of Tom and its Germanic transcribers, one can note the rejection of the fantastic representation of Morholt as a giant, the fabulous motifs of swallows with golden hair of Isolde and the miraculous boat that knows the right way, the reduction of the role of magical drinking, the rejection of limiting it to a certain period and the removal of scenes related to Tristan's "repentance" after the end. the actions of the drink (in particular, the scenes with Ogrin), the replacement of an entire troupe of pursuers by the seneschal Mariadoc, the transfer of the functions of Kaerdin's beloved to Brangien and rancor towards Tristan, the reduction in the episodes of persecution of the heroes and some mitigation of their cruelty, the reduction in the number of Tristan's returns to Cornwall (omitted "Tristan the Holy Fool").

By shortening some episodes and streamlining the composition, Toma introduced very few additional motifs. The most important are the trot of love, in which the lovers lived in exile, and the hall with statues of Isolde and Brangien, built by Tristan, when he parted with Isolde. These motifs are directly related to the new interpretation of Tom. Volume almost completely excludes external descriptions of everyday life, festivities, hunting, etc., but on the other hand, it builds a “psychological” level of love rhetoric and elements of analysis of emotional experiences in the form of internal monologues of characters, primarily Tristan himself, over the purely plot plane. Tristan's introspection is complemented by an analysis on behalf of the author. Hundreds of verses describe Tristan's hesitation before marriage and remorse after marriage. Thomas is able to describe the emotional fluctuations and internal inconsistency, even the paradoxical nature of some feelings, in particular the mixture of love, jealousy, resentment and longing that Tristan experiences after parting with Isolde, or the vicious circle of experiences in connection with Tristan's marriage, undertaken with the aim of "treating" love with marriage. It seems to Tristan that Isolde has forgotten him and is enjoying being married to Mark; annoyance and bitterness entail an attempt at hatred, which is as painful as love, but salvific indifference is unattainable. He seems to fall in love with the second Isolde, but only out of a painful desire to be cured of love for the first, however, the flight from sorrow only exacerbates sorrow, and the presence of the second Isolde again strengthens love for the first, etc. in the same spirit. The contradictions between the rights of love and social restrictions, pity and honor, soul and flesh are debated. The gap between the heart and the body, the position of a man between two women (Tristan between two Iseults) and a woman between two men (Iseult between Tristan and Mark) especially occupy Tom the psychologist. This development of elements of psychological analysis is specific to the courtly novel; the very level of this analysis in Tom is by no means lower than that of Chrétien de Troyes.

Thomas is largely committed to courtly ideals themselves. It glorifies the love of Tristan and Iseult. He has hints of the origin of feelings among the characters even before the drink, the image of the drink from the metonymic (as in Eilhart and Berul) becomes metaphorical, turns into a private symbol of love passion. The drink ceases to serve as an excuse, but this does not weaken, but only increases sympathy for the heroes, whose love is largely the fruit of their free choice. Therefore, Tom does not even speak of repentance, and the remorse experienced by the heroes expresses their guilt before love itself. Therefore, the life of lovers in le. su is interpreted idyllicly, in a completely different spirit than that of Berul: living in the wilderness, in the grotto of love, Tristan and Isolde experience rapture. The description of the grotto of love is known to us mainly from the retelling of Gottfried of Strasbourg (this part of Tom's text has disappeared, and the grotto is only briefly mentioned in the Norwegian saga); the giants also paid tribute to the sacrament of love in this grotto, and the crystal bed, located in the center of the grotto as a pagan altar, has been consecrated from time immemorial by the service of the goddess of love. The description of a beautiful lawn with flowers, a spring, birds singing and three lime trees in the center is probably inspired by the image of paradise. The pagan spiritualized love of Tristan and Isolde is drawn against the backdrop of virgin nature and in harmony with it. When Tristan and Isolde are forced to part, Tristan, with the help of a giant, sets up statues of Isolde and her friend Brangien in the cave hall and worships the statues, mentally talking with his absent lover.

Such deification of the beloved, as well as the features of the pagan cult of love, undoubtedly have a direct connection with courtly doctrine. In principle, justifying the love of Tristan and Isolde as a great passion, both sensual and sublime, Volume 6 at a certain moment, in connection with the separation of Tristan and Isolde after a period of life in the forest, separates the “flesh” and “soul” in a neoplatonic way: now Mark owns the flesh of Isolde, and Tristan - her soul. Such a division corresponds to the courtly "norm". The courtly ideology was vividly expressed in the episode with Brangien, cursing Tristan and her beloved Kaerdin for imaginary cowardice: they allegedly fled from the persecution of Cariado and did not even stop, conjured by the name of their ladies (in fact, their squires were the fugitives). Courtly love is connected in a certain way with honor and valor. This was also manifested in Tristan's last duel, when he went to battle after addressing him as a knight who had experienced great love .. There are other motives indicating courtly influences: Tristan's childhood education in the sciences and arts (playing the horn and harp), Tristan's courtesy courting Isolde (gifts, songwriting), etc.

All these undoubtedly courtly intentions of Tom cannot, however, turn the plot of Tristan and Isolde into an illustration of courtly doctrines, and the courtly idealization of Tristan and Isolde's love in the end only emphasizes its deep and hopeless tragedy.

At one time, J. Bedier wrote that "Tom's work is basically an effort by the court poet to introduce elegance and secular sophistication into a harsh and cruel legend" (Bedier, 1905, pp. 52-53).

Toma, of course, tried to bring in proper courtly ideals, but the plot resisted this. The resistance of the plot prompted some researchers to come to the paradoxical conclusion that Tom was anti-courtesy. P. Zhonin considers the violent experiences of the heroes, which go beyond the control of reason, Tristan’s jealousy for Mark and Isolde’s fear of her husband, Tristan’s search for another woman, instead of being satisfied with love from afar for the first Isolde, Brangien’s scolding about unworthy adultery, excessive sensuality of the heroes and their characteristic state of anxiety, to be contrary to courtly norms, considered by P. Jhonin to be contrary to courtly norms. 6).

X. Weber emphasizes that the "disjunction" of love languor and love realization (the gap between the "heart" and the "body"), which expresses the courtly concept, is presented by Tom too tragically and leads to the loss of joy. Behind this, according to X. Weber, there is a manifestation of a more general gap between “willing” and “can” (desir/poeir) and at the same time the consequence of a hated “chance”, “fate”, hostile to the free will of the individual (hence the conclusion is made about the criticism of courtly theories by Thom from “bourgeois” positions; see: Weber, 1976, pp. 35-65). Tom's position simply reflects the impossibility of a truly "courtly" interpretation of the more archaic pre-courtly plot without its decisive breaking. The syncretism of sensual and sublime love, the fatal nature of love passion, leading to suffering and death, are embedded in the very core of the plot and are completely irremovable. Respect for the traditional story, in fact, contributed to the truthfulness of Tom.

In a great article. P. Le Gentil says that courtesy does not prevent Thomas from being a realist (Le Gentil, 1953-1954, p. 21; cf. about Thomas' "realism": Fourier, 1960, ch. 1). I would avoid using this term in relation to medieval literature, but Le Gentil is right in emphasizing the objective result that Thomas arrives at. The greatness of Tom lies precisely in the fact that, partly contrary to his courtly ideals and thanks to the means of psychological analysis available to him, he managed to reveal more deeply than Berul and others the objective nature of the tragedy of Tristan and Iseult and thereby demonstrate the impotence of the courtly doctrine to find a way out of the real collisions of individual love in the context of medieval society (and, more broadly, in the general human plane).

The novels of Tristan and Isolde, on the one hand, and the work of Chrétien de Troyes, on the other, are related as the first and second stages, early and "classical" in the history of the French courtly novel.

For Chrétien de Troyes, the critical reassessment of the plot of Tristan and Isolde was the starting point of his own creative path. From the list of Chrétien's early works in the opening verses of "Clijès" it is known that he himself wrote "The Tale of King Mark and Iseult the Blond", but since this story has not been preserved, it remains unknown what it was: whether it was a short poetic fragment of the le type (perhaps episodes in which Mark played a special role) or a real novel. Taking into account the student's Philomena that has come down to us, it can be assumed that Chrétien's The Tale of King Mark and Iseult the Blond was also interested in portraying the tragic passion that united the ancient cycle with the Tristanian tradition. It is difficult to decide what the interpretation of this tradition was in Chrétien's story. very fundamental importance.

In the novels "Erec and Enida" and especially "Klizhes", Chrétien's attitude to this plot is sharply negative, moreover, polemically pointed.

There are a number of places in Erec and Enida that are negative replicas of Tristan and Isolde. The most striking of these is the ironic remark that "on that first night, Enida was neither abducted nor replaced by Brangien."

S. Hofer (Hofer, 1954, pp. 78-85) argues that a number of scenes in Erec and Enida go back implicitly to Tristan and Isolde; the exit of the queen at the beginning of "Erek and Enida", in his opinion, is the prototype of Isolde's going hunting with Mark, the appearance of Erek with Enida in front of the altar anticipates the same scene with Mark and Isolde; the forest life of Tristan and Isolde finds an echo in the stay of Mabo-nagren and his beloved in a wonderful garden (for Tristan it is forced, but for Mabonagren it is voluntary), etc. Enida’s treatment of the counts who seek her love, according to Hofer, is contrastingly oriented to the behavior of Isolde. Even Erec's "cowardice" (recreantise) he tends to trace to Tristan's concentration on Iseult. Finds Hofer and a number of lexical matches. He has some exaggerations,4 but he is undoubtedly right that the hidden polemic with "Tristan and Isolde" is present in "Erec and Enid" and then runs like a red thread through Chrétien's work.

The ideal love in "Erek and Enid" is conjugal, so that the wife is both friend and lover; here such immersion in love is condemned, which tears away from action, weakens knightly prowess. The transition from adultery to conjugal love in itself does not guarantee harmony and does not eliminate the possible conflict of feeling and social duty, but the author painfully seeks and finds, together with his characters, a worthy exit and an optimistic ending. In addition, Chrétien finds in "Erec and Enid" a rationale and a place for Erek to continue the exploits comparable to the deeds of epic heroes, which restores the weakening (in "Tristan and Isolde") connection with the epic heritage. For the time being, I will postpone further consideration of this programmatic work of Chrétien and turn to the next novel - "Clijes", which has a largely "experimental" character and is clearly conceived and implemented (this is recognized, starting with Förster, by all researchers) as the antithesis of "Tristan and Isolde", a kind of "Antitristan", or "Neotrist. en", which vigorously contests the concept of fatal destructive passion. There are four very significant polemical references to Tristan and Isolde in Klijes. In addition, there are a number of parallels that S. Hofer, for example, considers quite conscious on the part of Chrétien (see: Hofer, 1954, pp.> 112-120). These parallels include the very principle of dividing into two parts (the story of the hero's parents / the story of the hero), the love triangle involving an uncle and nephew, a sea voyage, the motif of the beloved's hair (Isolde and Soredamor), the magical drink, the confidantes (Brangien and Thessal), the temporary departures of Tristan and Clijes. A. Fourier gives other similar details. He believes that both the general version and the courtly version are widely used in Clizes, but the controversy is specifically against the courtly version of Thomas (Fourier, 1960, pp. 111-178). X. Weber, the author of a special dissertation "Chrétien and Poetry about Tristan" (see: Weber, 1976), believes that the problem of the unity of bodily and mental life ("body" / "heart"), polemically posed in "Clizes", already figured explicitly in Tom's novel. The identification of individual parallels is, of course, only important when identifying the general polemical intention of Chrétien. I would add to this that all the essential elements of "Klizhes" go back to the plot of Tristan and Iseult.

Indeed, following the construction of Tristan and Isolde, Chrétien introduces as the first link the story of Tristan's parents, Alexander and Soredamor. In their relationship there was no sharp transition from indifference or even hostility to passionate, indestructible. love after accidentally drinking a drink. Their feelings developed gradually, so that they did not immediately become aware of it; the behavior of both is youthfully timid and delicate, the cause is helped by the sympathetic Queen Genievra. The outward resemblance to the "Tristan" is emphasized by the fact that their love flares up on the ship, but there is no magical intoxication. As "accident" and "fate", the love potion provokes Chrétien's protest. "Drink" for Chrétien is too external a reason for the emergence of love, and he tries to motivate the emergence of love in a natural way, resorting to the means of psychological analysis, even if scholastically straightforward, going back to the rhetoric of Ovid's type. The breakthrough of love feeling is stimulated by a completely different reality, more modest and natural - the golden hair of Soredamor sewn into Alexander's shirt (perhaps a polemical allusion to the golden hair of Isolde, brought by a swallow to the palace of King Mark).

M. Lazar (Lazar, 1964, p. 213) correctly noted that the first love story (parents) describes, and the second (the main characters) carries out polemics.

The main characters of the novel - the Greek prince (Alexander's son) and the Celtic princess, as already noted, are connected by the same "triangle" with the new Greek emperor Alice, the uncle of Clijes, as Tristan and Isolde are with Mark. Clijes is Alice's nephew and heir. Alice is forced to make a promise not to marry, so as not to have another heir, but breaks the contract and woo the German princess Fenise. These details make Alice a negative character and, as it were, free Clijes from respect for him, from an internally motivated sense of duty. Nevertheless, Klizhes participates in the matchmaking and in the fight against the Saxon duke, who also claims the hand of Fenisa. Just like Tristan, Clijes shows valor in "getting" Fenisa - recapturing her from the Saxons who kidnapped the girl and defeating the Saxon duke himself in a duel. His love for Phoenix arises in the same natural and delicate way as Alexander's love for Soredamor.

Fenisa, having fallen in love with Clijes, herself opposes her position to that of Isolde, resenting the fact that Isolde belonged to two men. “He who controls the heart, let him also control the body” (v. 3164).

In addition, Fenisa clearly does not want to be a toy in the hands of fate, she strives for an active choice of her own free will, for an active search for a way out of the impasse. A. . Fourier views Fénisa as a supporter of the courtly doctrine as an ideological basis for the observance of social conventions and the honor of the queen, which Isolde neglected, which seems to me a stretch. Rather, Fenisa is looking for an honest way - to get rid of conventions without violating morality.

X. Weber believes that Chrétien is looking for a compromise, a way out of the tragic split of the body / heart and the tragic power of chance-fate by turning the objective category of being into a “strategy”. A drink, for example, becomes his instrument of intrigue. The verb “cannot” (ne poeir), expressing the situation of Tristan, is here cleverly transferred to the emperor Alice, from whom Fenisa decided to finally escape (and the emperor’s power is purely formal, in which Weber sees a parallel to the connection / separation of the “body” and “heart”). Phenisa forces “chance” (fate) to serve itself not in grief, but in favor, as a result of which the tragic motive becomes comic (for more details, see: Weber, 1976, pp. 66-85). No matter how one interprets “Tristan and Isolde” by Thomas, as a courtly version or not (as Jonin and Weber believe, see above), it is quite obvious that Chrétien is arguing here with both Thomas and Provencal fin "amors (on criticism in Clizes fin" amors, see: Lazar, 1964, pp. 213-232).

Unable to immediately get rid of the unloved: her husband and officially become the wife of Clijes, Fenisa resorts to witchcraft and cunning. The magical drink that was rejected now appears in the arena, but in a negative function. The potion prepared by the nurse is supposed to “detach” the emperor-husband from Fenisa, the drink dooms him to being capable of a love union with his wife only in his imagination, in a dream. (At this point, Chrétien's novel, deviating from the Three-Stanovian plot, strangely coincides with Gurgani's romantic poem "Vis and Ramin", in which some researchers see the source of "Tristan and Isolde": the sorcerous talisman of the nurse-sorceress causes the impotence of Mubad, Vis's old husband.) To unite with her lover, Fenisa pretends to be dead and is transferred by Clijes to a special tower with a garden, where both enjoy happiness . J. Frappier compares this garden with a forest and a grotto of love, in which Tristan and Isolde are saved. If we accept this comparison, then we can say that Thomas is on the side of "nature" (a natural background for natural feelings), and Chrétien is on the side of "culture".

The plot of the imaginary deceased, probably borrowed by Chrétien from a book found in St. Peter's (see: Frappier, 1968, p. MO), was widely known in the Middle Ages; it was subsequently used in the Italian novel and in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. By resorting to such a "novelistic" way out of the impasse in order to exercise free will and "rights of the heart", Fenisa really anticipates the heroines of the literature of the European Renaissance. True, Tristan and Isolde also resorted to tricks to arrange dates, but Fenisa, unlike them, uses cunning in order to free herself from a false and unworthy situation once and for all. When a hiding place is accidentally discovered (cf. a similar motif of the forest life of Cornish lovers) and the lovers have to flee under the protection of King Arthur, then, fortunately for them, the angry Alice suffocated with rage and the heroes can openly return to Constantinople as kings (just like Vis and Ramin at Gurgani).

The rethinking of the plot of "Tristan and Isolde" in "Klizhes" is very clearly expressed at the level of composition, since the same syntagmatic links are subject to rearrangement, re-emphasis, change of functions. In Tristan and Isolde, the cycle of episodes in which the lovers, with the help of various tricks, arrange dates in order to then part again, is followed by their life together in exile in the forest, then a long painful separation and, finally, death as an accident and at the same time the natural crown of their tragic fate. In Klizhes, "parting" as a test of the strength of feelings precedes attempts to unite, and a series of cunning dates is drawn into one episode of a decisive union of lovers. This episode represents at the same time voluntary (as opposed to forced in "Tristan") isolation from society (not in the forest and the grotto, but in the garden and the tower). Not obeying fate, but constantly holding the initiative in their hands, the heroes turn death itself into a kind of saving trick: by imitating death, Fenisa ensures a happy life together. In reality, their enemy dies "instead" of them, and the isolation ends. Such different links as the "dating device", "life in isolation" and "death" are combined with each other and with such a distribution of functions that provides a happy end.

By and large, the rethinking of the Tristan plot, and especially the interpretation of Tom in Chrétien's "Clijès", cannot be considered convincing, since Chrétien did not manage to get rid of witchcraft motives, nor to reduce the role of chance; his artistic polemics are experimental and rational and, in this sense, limited. At the same time, this reassessment of the Tristanian plot helped Chrétien create a novel of a different type, with the conscious use of somewhat modified courtly concepts. The coincidences with “Vis and Ramin” noted above in brackets make one think about some common sources or “wandering motifs”. These coincidences, by the way, refute the opinion of P. Galle, who derives "Tristan and Isolde" from "Vis and Ramin", that Chrétien in "Clijès" criticized the tradition of Tristan as "non-Western".

Echoes of "Tristan" can be found in Chrétien's subsequent novels, and not always in such a strictly polemical context. In particular, in "Lancelot" the adultery of Lancelot and Genievra, the wife of King Arthur, is sung, and the very night of love between Lancelot and Genievra with bloody sheets from Lancelot's wounds is a tracing-paper from one of the episodes of the story of Tristan and Isolde. However, unlike Tristan, Lancelot remains an active knight, the savior of the unfortunate captives of Meleagan, etc., love for Genievre only inspires him to feats of great social value.

S. Hofer finds a number of narrative analogies of Lanselot with Tristan and Isolde (similarity in the position of Mark and Arthur, Morcholt and Meleagan and much more) and believes that Chretien directly proceeds from the novel of Tom, which, in turn, seems to S. Hofer with the inspired element of the Provence Courteeman Courtyle theories, their episodes. Zation ". It should, however, be emphasized that Hofer underestimated the cardinal divergence between Lancelot and Tristan, which lies precisely in the interpretation of Lancelot's love not as an obstacle to his chivalrous activity (such, perhaps, was still in Erec and Enid), but as a direct and main source of heroic inspiration and chivalrous prowess.

Let us now turn to Chrétien's main Breton novels and the new "classical" form of the problematic courtly novel they represent. We practically excluded from this consideration the above-described "Klizhes" as a purely "experimental" novel. and connecting proper Breton motifs with Byzantine and others.

Artistic features and specificity of the genre in the novel "Tristan and Isolde"

The general concept of the novel about Tristan and Iseult

The Celtic legend of Tristan and Isolde was known in a large number of adaptations in French, but many of them died, and only small fragments of others have survived. By comparing all the French editions of the novel about Tristan, fully or partially known to us, as well as their translations into other languages, it was possible to restore the plot and the general character of the oldest French novel that has not come down to us (mid-12th century), to which all these editions date back.

Tristan, the son of one king, lost his parents in childhood and was kidnapped by visiting Norwegian merchants. Having escaped from captivity, he ended up in Cornwall, to the court of his uncle King Mark, who raised Tristan and, being old and childless, intended to make him his successor. in a boat and swims at random. The wind brings him to Ireland, and the queen there, versed in potions, not knowing that Tristan killed her brother Morolt ​​in a duel, heals him. Upon Tristan's return to Cornwall, the local barons, out of envy of him, demand that Mark marry and give the country an heir to the throne. Wanting to dissuade this, Mark announces that he will marry only the girl who owns the golden hair dropped by a flying swallow. Tristan sets off in search of the beauty. He again sails at random and again ends up in Ireland, where he recognizes in the royal daughter, Isolde Golden-haired, the girl who owns the hair. Having defeated the fire-breathing dragon that devastated Ireland, Tristan receives Isolde's hand from the king, but announces that he himself will not marry her, but will take her as a bride to his uncle. When he and Isolde sail on a ship to Cornwall, they mistakenly drink the “love potion” that Isolde’s mother gave her so that when they drink it, she and King Mark will forever be bound by love Tristan and Isolde cannot fight the passion that gripped them from now on until the end of their days they will belong to each other Upon arrival in Cornwall, Isolde becomes Mark’s wife, but passion makes her seek secret dates with Tristan The courtiers try to track them down but unsuccessfully, and the generous Mark tries not to notice anything In the end, the lovers are caught, and the court sentences them to execution. However, Tristan manages to escape with Isolde, and they wander for a long time in the forest, happy with their love, but experiencing great hardships. Finally, Mark forgives them on the condition that Tristan retire into exile. But immediately after the wedding, he repents of this and remains faithful to the first Isolde. Languishing in separation from his sweetheart, he several times, disguised, comes to Cornwall to secretly see her. Mortally wounded in Brittany in one of the skirmishes, he sends a faithful friend to Cornwall to bring him Isolde, who alone can heal him; in case of luck, let his friend put out a white sail. But when the ship with Isolde appears on the horizon, the jealous wife, having learned about the agreement, tells Tristan to tell that the sail on it is black. Hearing this, Tristan dies. Isolde comes up to him, lies down next to him and also dies. They are buried, and on the same night two trees grow out of their two graves, the branches of which are intertwined.

The author of this novel quite accurately reproduced all the details of the Celtic story, retaining its tragic coloring, and only replaced almost everywhere the manifestations of Celtic customs and customs with features of French knightly life. From this material, he created a poetic story, permeated with a general feeling and thought, which struck the imagination of his contemporaries and caused a long series of imitations.

The success of the novel is mainly due to the special situation in which the characters are placed and the concept of their feelings. In the suffering that Tristan experiences, a prominent place is occupied by the painful consciousness of the hopeless contradiction between his passion and the moral foundations of the whole society, binding on him. Tristan languishes with the consciousness of the lawlessness of his love and the insult that he inflicts on King Mark, endowed in the novel with features of rare nobility and generosity. Like Tristan, Mark himself is a victim of the voice of the feudal-knightly “public opinion”. He did not want to marry Isolde, and after that he was by no means inclined to be suspicious or jealous of Tristan, whom he continues to love as his own son. But all the time he is forced to yield to the insistence of informers-barons, pointing out to him that his knightly and royal honor is suffering, and even threatening him with an uprising. Nevertheless, Mark is always ready to forgive the guilty. Tristan constantly remembers this kindness of Mark, and from this his moral suffering is even intensified.

Both this first novel and other French novels about Tristan caused many imitations in most European countries - in Germany, England, Scandinavia, Spain, Italy and other countries. They are also known to have been translated into Czech and Belarusian. Of all the adaptations, the most significant is the German novel by Gottfried of Strassburg (beginning of the 13th century), which stands out for its subtle analysis of the characters' emotional experiences and masterful description of the forms of knightly life. It was Gottfried's "Tristan" that most contributed to the revival in the 19th century. poetic interest in this medieval story. He served as the most important source for Wagner's famous opera Tristan und Isolde (1859).

Ilidzheva Natalya Valbegovna- student of the French language faculty of the Moscow State Linguistic University.

Annotation: This work sets itself the task of tracing the development and reflection of the legend from the first evidence of its existence in the works of French writers: the Norman trouveur Berul, whose novel has come down to us only in the form of a rather large passage, and the Anglo-Norman Tom, whose verse novel is translated in full, but conveys only a few episodes of the once vast work. The combination of the features of these two poems in the novel by Joseph Bedier will also be analyzed.

Keywords: European literature, legend, poem, chivalric romance, storyline, trouvères, philological analysis, French literature.

The medieval legend about the love of the young man Tristan from Leonoi and the Queen of Cornwall, Iseult Blond, is one of the most popular plots of Western European literature. Having arisen in the Celtic folk environment, the legend then caused numerous literary fixations, first in Welsh, then in French, in revisions from which it entered all major European literatures, not passing Slavic ones.

Examining the novel "Tristan and Isolde", we can say that this work is the embodiment of a number of features that belong to the chivalric novel.

Saint Samson Island;

The parallel between Tristan's battle with Morold of Ireland and David's battle with Goliath or Achilles' battle with Hector (in addition, the description of the battle is an integral part of any chivalric romance);

The motif of the sails, taken from the ancient Greek legend of Theseus.

Secondly, a description of the personality of Tristan as a hero endowed with chivalrous qualities:

Knowing your place;

Hierarchy of ranks;

Knowledge of etiquette;

Excellent ability to find a common language;

Equestrian fight;

Sword possession;

Hunting knowledge.

Thirdly, the presence of fairy-tale motifs in the work:

three times the demand of the Morold of Ireland to go to him in battle;

"Seven days, seven nights Tristan was carried quietly."

The predestination of fate is also vividly expressed in the novel:

Departure of Tristan in a boat towards healing or death;

Mark's decision to marry the girl who owns the curls brought by the swallows.

And finally, despite the unusual circumstances of the emergence of feelings between Tristan and Iseult, the theme of love is at the center of the storyline of the novel.

Speaking about the difference between the concept of love in "Tristan and Isolde" between Tom and Berul, it should be noted that the Roman of Tom, preserved in fragments, tells about the tragically unchanging and hopeless love of a knight for the wife of his overlord and uncle ("almost father") King Mark. A fatal passion that is criminal in all respects, the cause and symbol of which is a love drink drunk by mistake, does not affect the system of ethical values ​​in any way: both King Mark and Isolde Belorukaya, whom Tristan marries in order to overcome his love for Isolde the Blonde, and both protagonists retain all high spiritual qualities, but at the same time suffer from an all-powerful feeling that irresistibly captivates the heroes to death. Tom's version, usually referred to as "courtly", is in fact far from the ideals of courtly lyrics and chivalric romance: the lady in "The Romance of Tristan" is not an object of semi-sacred worship and does not inspire the hero to exploits in her honor. The center of gravity is transferred to the psychological torments that the heroes endure, connected by family and moral ties and endlessly, against their will, transgressing them.

The love of Tristan and Isolde is described somewhat differently in the so-called "epic" version of the plot, which includes Berul's "The Romance of Tristan". He, explicitly focusing on the poetics of "gestures" with its formality and appeal to the audience, depicts Mark as a weak king, dependent on recalcitrant barons. At the same time, the passion of lovers in him partially loses its fatal character (the effect of the love potion is limited to three years), acquiring, however, an inherent value that justifies it in the eyes of not only common people - townspeople, palace servants, unborn knights - but also divine providence, thanks to which they invariably avoid traps and exposures, including at the "God's court". However, even such love, triumphant, almost devoid of spiritual anguish and not striving for death, does not fit into the system of courtly norms.

It is worth noting that when they talk about love in the novel about Tristan and Iseult, they are talking not only about feelings between a man and a woman, but also about love for their land, their people, and most importantly, for their relatives. In this case, the love between uncle and nephew, Mark and Tristan, is implied.

In justification of Tristan, the idea of ​​drinking a magic potion arises, which contributed to the incitement of passion between Tristan and Isolde. On the one hand, this is the revolt of the author of the work against the foundations that have developed in a feudal society: obedience to the heart, following feelings to the detriment of duty to their relatives, and on the other hand, the presentation of love between a man and a woman as a chemical reaction that deprives them of their minds: despite the fact that they do not want to hurt their loved ones, despite all the customs and traditions, they are indebted to those who sheltered and loved them, they cannot go against the passion that has forever taken possession them.

As for Mark, he “never was able to expel either Isolde or Tristan from his heart”, “there was neither poison nor witchcraft - only the nobility of his heart inspired him with love.” Although a moment slipped through the novel that perhaps Mark was also affected by the magic of a love potion, these assumptions were immediately refuted:

“The narrators say that Brangien did not throw a jug of wine into the sea” and “as if King Mark drank a lot, and Isolde quietly poured out her share. But know, good people, that these narrators have spoiled and distorted the story. If they made up this lie, it was because they did not understand the great love that Mark always had for the queen.

Thus, Mark's love is sacred, innocent, but the forbidden love between Tristan and Isolde is not. Being a noble knight and Iseult a pious queen, they would never have betrayed the love of the king, if not for a miracle potion that does not allow them to follow their duty. They try to resist their feelings, but they are not subject to them, because there is nothing stronger than magic.

But even before the herbal infusion, young people liked each other. But then they were owned by the mind, not feelings. Tristan, without any regret, went to get Mark the Blonde Iseult, deftly deceived her, and she instantly hated him. And only a potion could interfere with their nobility.

Since Mark was not under the magic of the drink, despite his feelings, he could not forgive the betrayal, could not resist the hatred and envy towards his once beloved nephew. He sees it as his duty to execute lovers, and would have done it if not for the dexterity and intelligence of Tristan. But these qualities of Tristan are nothing compared to God, fate, who were on the side of Tristan and will help him avoid execution. But luck did not accompany him for long, because his mother called him Tristan not in vain: “I gave birth in sadness, my first greetings to you are sad.”

Thus, the problem of choosing between duty and feeling rises before each of the heroes of the novel, but each acts in accordance with the circumstances that are prepared for them by fate, because it is impossible to resist it.

Nevertheless, as it should be in a chivalric romance, love is presented here as a symbol of the victory of good over evil. It has already been said that the theme of love in the novel is presented in various ways. And, as it turned out, thanks to the machinations of fate (or despite them), love won. She defeated the enmity between Tristan and Mark, she defeated the intrigues of Tristan's ill-wishers, she defeated the envy of Iseult Beloruka to her rival, she defeated death. Despite the fact that the main characters suffered a fate, their love also won, death could not separate them: “at night, a blackthorn, covered with green foliage, with strong branches and fragrant flowers, grew out of Tristan’s grave, which, spreading through the chapel, went to Isolde’s grave”

And again, a reference to a chivalric romance: the idea that the lovers remained together after death is presented in not a single work that can not always even be attributed to a chivalric romance: these are various kinds of legends, this is the story of Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, this is Victor Hugo's Notre Dame Cathedral.

The victory of love over death is also demonstrated in Mark's attitude towards the dead: it was he who ordered Tristan and Isolde to be buried together and forbade cutting down the thorn bush that grew between their graves.

Despite the fact that the theme of love in the novel about Tristan and Isolde is presented somewhat differently than in other chivalric novels (if only because of the lack of true harmony between feelings and reason), it is central in this work. In vain, Joseph Bedier, in his interpretation of the novel, wrote the following ending:

“Good people, glorious trovers of the old days, Berul and Thomas, and Eyolgart, and Meister Gottfried told this story for all those who loved, not for others. They send greetings through me to you, to all those who yearn and are happy, who are offended by love and who yearn for it, who are joyful and who yearn, to all those who love. May they find comfort here in inconstancy and injustice, in annoyances and hardships, in all the sufferings of love.

In conclusion, it must be said that Tristan and Isolde is not a typical chivalric romance. In this work, there are both similarities with this genre of literature, as well as some deviations from the accepted canons. Moreover, it should be noted that there are at least two versions of the legend - epic and courtly - by Thomas and Beroul, as well as the novel by Joseph Bedier, which is a kind of combination of the above options. Each work is not devoid of the author's subjective assessment, which, for example, in Bedier's novel is often supported by arguments.

It is difficult to say which of the works best reflects the content of the original source. Initially, the legends were transmitted only orally, they were not recorded in any written sources. But even with the oral distribution of the legend, each narrator added something of his own, somewhat distorting the plot.

One thing remains the same: love, no matter what it is, no matter how it is presented, it is always on the central plane. She justifies everything, any actions of heroes. She overcomes all obstacles. All other features of a chivalric romance depend on it: valor is of no use to a knight if his heart is not full of love for his beautiful lady. Love for subjects contributes to the generosity of the rulers, their desire to protect their people. The loss of loved ones can hurt and kill more than any weapon.

Bibliography

1. Bedier J. Tristan and Isolde - M .: Wolfson Studio, Atticus Publishing Group LLC, 2011. - 148 p.

2. Mikhailov A.D. The legend of Tristan and Isolde and its completion. Studies in language and literature. L., 1973. Annotation to the work of J. Bedier "Tristan and Isolde [Electronic resource] - URL: http://libok.net/

3. Barkova A.L. Tristan and Isolde [Electronic resource] - URL: http://mith.ru/

4. Berul. A novel about Tristan. Per. from the Old French Linetskaya E.L. [Electronic resource] - URL: http://wysotsky.com/

5. Dictionaries and encyclopedias at Academician [Electronic resource] - URL: http://medieval_culture.academic.ru/

6. Tom. A novel about Tristan [Electronic resource]: URL: http://wysotsky.com/

7. Tristan and Isolde: Notes [Electronic resource]: URL: http://fbit.ru/

Medieval novels are a rather interesting phenomenon in literature. On the one hand, fiction is based on clerical, ecclesiastical literature, thanks to which books appeared in their modern sense: with covers, spines, pages, miniatures, and other traditional attributes. On the other hand, there is an insatiable desire to fantasize and come up with extraordinary stories. True, the authors are not yet accustomed to describing in detail the characters, the surrounding space and the events taking place. Instead, they devote all their attention to the rapid change of circumstances, relentlessly seasoning them with magic.

These features also characterize "Tristan and Isolde" - one of the most famous French works. The great Shakespeare was inspired by him when writing. We will also find parallels with the story of Francesca da Rimini from Dante's Divine Comedy. What has served as such a success in literary circles? Why is the described plot considered immortal and still relevant?

To live apart was neither life nor death, but both together.

The first references to Tristan were found in Welsh manuscripts. The Welsh are a Celtic people who inhabit Wales. Thus, the legend contains elements of Welsh folklore and their mythology. Of course, King Arthur and the knight Gauvin could not do without: it was they who reconciled the king and nephew in manuscripts.

In the 12th century, books about Tristan began to appear. They were called "The Romance of Tristan", "Tristan the Holy Fool", but the famous version, which united both lovers in its title, was the book of Thomas, the Anglo-Norman poet. It is with him that the name Isolde is first encountered.

Later, Gottfried of Strasbourg, Marie of France, Italian and German poets offered their versions of tragic love. At the beginning of the 20th century, Joseph Bedier collected all the extant texts and tried to reconstruct the original. Today, its reconstruction is considered the most complete story about the fate of young people.

According to Bedier, Tristan loses his parents as a child and is raised by King Mark, his uncle. Tristan grows up to be an outstanding warrior and a loyal vassal of the king, he fights monsters and always miraculously defeats them. Mark decides to marry, and Tristan goes in search of his future wife, Iseult, who had a love potion for her and Mark. On their way home, Tristan and Iseult accidentally drink a potion and fall head over heels in love with each other. They continue to meet behind the back of an unsuspecting Mark and do their best to keep their love a secret. Cruel fate presents them with one test after another. One of them becomes deadly for them.

Conventionally, the work can be divided into two parts: in the first, Tristan appears before us as an indestructible hero, a demigod fighting for the honor of the kingdom and Mark; the second part is dominated by a love story, with its joys and sorrows, successes and defeats. Even here, Tristan takes the leading role and the primary problem of the novel is connected with him: the vassal is in love with the overlord's wife. This issue will be borrowed a little later by chivalrous and courtly literature.

No, it was not wine - it was passion, burning joy, and endless longing, and death.

The image of Tristan causes conflicting feelings in me. Too many things come easily to him, the impossible becomes possible, but isn't this the result of hard work or developed talent? And his masculinity! It would seem that he, a faithful servant of his king, and even his nephew, has no right to claim his love aunts, under no circumstances. Here, he succumbs to his feelings, imposed from the outside. Maybe he even likes it: to suffer, to seek out precious minutes for a date, to love the inaccessible.

In turn, Isolde, although she faded into the background, did not lose her charm and significance. At times she seems to me more courageous, serious and adult than Tristan. It must be hard to be married to an unloved adult (if not old) man whom she saw for the first time almost on her wedding day. It’s even harder to “love” your brother’s killer, hide your “real” emotions from your husband and not be seen in public - skills that require grace, ingenuity and dexterity. In addition, Isolde comes from a warring country, and the customs and traditions of the kingdom of Mark are alien to her. As soon as she did not go crazy from stress, life's trials and prolonged depression?

King Mark is the least obvious character in my understanding of the novel. His behavior in family life is fully reflected in the policy pursued. Being blind or madly in love, he does not notice the betrayal of his wife and the betrayal of the vassal. As king, he does not recognize the instigation of approximate knights on Tristan and their desire to get rid of him. I wonder if Mark is really such a good king, loved by the people? Yes, he is merciful, which we see in one of the episodes when he does not kill lovers in the forest. At other times, he is more quick-tempered, malleable with emotions, and acts without hesitation.

To some extent, such a strong influence of feelings on the lives of heroes is explained by real life, where sensations are of great importance. However, in real events, we tend to think, analyze the situation and accept the best outcome. Hence the awkwardness of the medieval plot. Nevertheless, this is the kind of literary experience that must be obtained in order to better understand the development and formation of world literature, as well as the ability of authors to write and describe.