Which of the musical forms is considered the simplest. musical forms

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The musical form is the structure of the whole work, its structure.

There are external and internal signs of division of the muses. works, signs of form.

External - this is the genre of the work: instrumental music or vocal, miniature or large work, lyrical or dance. The genre will already determine the possible range of forms. Information about the genre in the title of the work, in nuances, tempos, meter, in music. warehouse, invoice. The external signs of division are musical text: signs of reduction in musical writing, reprises, the appearance of a new nuance, a change in tempo or a return to the previous one - all these are signs of a new section. External signs include a change in meter, key signs, a change in texture.

Internal signs in the musical material itself. For a successful analysis of the form, a harmonic analysis is necessary (all the forms presented below are forms of the classical homophonic-harmonic style, structures in the formation of which harmony dominates). It is necessary to pay attention to the texture, it is necessary to solfegge and hear melodic lines together with harmony, to identify music functions. material, presentation types and methods of its development, repetitions of topics and thematic material, to distinguish between "relief" (exposition of topics) and "background" material.

In the music musical material can be perceived (according to Tyulin) in three qualities, - material functions:

basic material preparatory final

(show, exposition)

Sposobin suggested 6 functions musical material in a work detailing the previous ones:

summary reprise introduction middle link conclusion

Topics

The individuality of the material, that is, its function, depends on the characteristics of the muses. language, i.e. on the type of presentation(according to Method). There are 5 of them:

expositional introductory, middle, connecting final

type of presentation types of presentation type of presentation

Structural design, Middle type of presentation; Multiple

isolation; harmonic and extended cadence is possible

tonal stability, semi-authentic cadence; available

texture unity. modulation transition; T organ

possible D organ point. item, MTS -

Perhaps 2 - 3 cycles of invoices - summation.

noah training, - Structural informality,

maybe open or open; harmonic

a closed sentence, multiple and tonal instability, fluidity;

cue thesis. possible D organ point.

In complex forms, it is possible development(as a type of presentation).

large construction of the middle - Its features: - thematic isolation,

different type of presentation. - sequential development,

polyphonic means.

In the process of analyzing works of complex forms, it is convenient to designate the sequence of sections on the draft with letters: capital letters (A, B, C, etc.) are the main sections, capital letters are subsections. If necessary, more specifically: C - middle, R - development, CB - link, A1, A2 - varied repetition, Intro., Conclusion, Coda, etc. Sometimes it is necessary in the scheme to additionally mark the structure of the presentation of topics, tonal plans, number of measures, thematic material. It helps to make generalizations.

Reminder for beginners.

To determine the boundary of the theme (completion of the thought), sometimes it is enough to find the final cadence: D7 - T (on a strong time, in the melodic position of the prima).

Simple SINGLE-PART - this is a work form , which is based on one musical theme.

The most typical structure of a one-part form (musical themes) is a period of different types: extended, often with additions, complex periods, sometimes free constructions.

Works in the one-movement form often have introductions and conclusions, as in all other forms. In complex forms - codes.

Scope: instrumental and vocal choral miniatures, preludes, songs, romances, plays of the pedagogical repertoire.

Variety - developed one-part form.

SIMPLE TWO-PIECE- the form of the work, based on the presentation of the theme and the response to it by the muses. material.

first part second part

theme reciprocal music.mat.

thesis confirmation of the thesis

According to the thematic material, the second part happens:

Based on the material of Part I ( a - a1 ),

On the updated material ( a - b),

- reprise two-part ("with inclusion", according to Tyulin ), when in the second part an unstable middle type of material (“inclusion”) is introduced, after which the second or first sentence of the first part is repeated. ( reprise):

first part second part

Subject , period

a b c b

1 sentenceIIsuggestion unst. (or a)

middle

material

In the two-part form, repetitions of sections are possible, written out by the composer or indicated: A B;

Memo. Repetitions (with a reprise sign or written out) do not change the form.

The repeated structure in the second part is not typical for the two-part form. Perhaps this is a varied stanza (vocal form) in instrumental music.

Scope: preludes, instrumental and choral miniatures, program pieces, dances, songs, romances.

Varieties of two-part:

- developed two-part;

- old two-part;

- complex(compound) two-part, when each part is in simple two-part or three-part form.

- double two-part (variably repeated):

: A B A1 B1 (schematically - A B)

Simple THREE-PART is the form

Part I of which is a presentation of the topic,

Part II (middle) - music. material contrasting thematically or according to the type of presentation to the topic,

Part III (reprise) - repetition of the original theme:

first part middle reprise

The average for thematic material can be

On the material of the topic: A - A1 - A;

On new material: A - B - A;

Development: A - R - A;

Bundle type: A - SV - A.

(Three different themes, -А–В–С, do not form a tripartite form. It may be a compound form, it may be a vocal varied stanza in instrumental music.)

Reprise happens accurate (static; its original version is Da Capo al Fine, i.e. from beginning to end) and modified (dynamic), - from a few sounds to a significant one.

Possible repetitions written out by the composer or indicated:

A B A etc.

The last option with written out by a varied repeat Parts II and III, - A - B - A1 - B1 - A2, - called three-five-part(Way) or double tripartite form.

A three-part form with active thematic development can be called a developed three-part form.

Scope: preludes, nocturnes, dances, marches, program pieces, choirs, songs, romances, arias.

Complex THREE-PART- a form, each part of which is a simple two-part, three-part, etc. form.

Complex from the word addition, the sum of simple ones.

first part middle part reprise

etc. 2h. 3 types: accurate(static),

etc. 3 hours (option - Da Capo, "from the beginning")

3-5 hours or modified(dynamic),

etc. often abbreviated

Trio(trio) or magore, minore. Episode- late Composite cf. part, i.e.

The earliest type cf. parts. Ha-type cf. parts: with con- consisting of 2x-3x lock-

Characteristic for the lively genre painter of the 18th century. Characteristic constructions (music.

howl of music. The trio is distinguished by a closed term for moderate themes) that do not form

the shape of the form (ex. 2 hours, 3 hours) and or slow music - form. Characteristic for

emphasized contrast: genre, ki. Usually it is 2-3 waltzes.

modal, tonal, tempo, open-loop constructions

textured. eniya, harmonically

The name "Trio" originated in unstable, fluid.

17th century, when in orchestral production. 3 hours

dance forms. music, the middle part, unlike the rest, was performed

only three, usually woodwinds.

Application area.

The form is closed, stable, and is used in production. various genres: marches, polonaises, waltzes, nocturnes; in sonata-symphonic cycles in the middle movements: in minuets, scherzos, in slow movements.

RONDO - a form where the main theme (refrain) is performed at least 3 times, and between its performances, musical material of a different content (episodes).

episodes

A - B - A - C - A, etc. A The term "rondo" has 2 meanings:

1. Rondo is a genre of lively song and dance music. Fr. rondeau- circle,

Refrain round dance; refrain- refrain.

2. Rondo - form. Works in the form of a rondo more often correspond to the rondo genre. But the rondo form is also found in slow music.

Ancient rondo (couplet).

17th - 18th centuries .Rondo Daken, Rameau, Couperin.

The number of parts from 5 or more.

The refrain is usually in a period structure.

Single dark: A - A1 - A - A2 - A, etc. A; (episodes based on the material of the refrain);

Dual Dark: A - B - A - B1, etc. A. (episodes based on independent material).

Classic rondo.

XVIII century. The main type is a five-part rondo. Characterized by an exacerbation of the contrast between refrain and episodes. The refrain is usually in pr. 2h or pr.3h form.

According to the thematic material and the type of presentation in the episodes, there are a variety of variants of the rondo:

A B A C A - with two different episodes;

A B A B1 A - episodes on one thematic. material;

A B A R A - development in the second episode;

A A1 A B A or A B A A1 A - an episode based on the material of the refrain.

The code may be separate, may be combined with the last refrain.

RondoXIX– XXcentury. Structural complexity is typical. The refrain may vary, the keys may change in its repetitions. The contrast between the refrain and the episodes is often sharpened. The latter can be isolated in form: pr.2x, 3h..

A characteristic feature of the rondo of the XIX-XX centuries. - the use of the form in close connection with the program indicated by the title or implied: Introduction and rondo-capriccioso of Saint-Saens, Schumann's Arabesque, Prokofiev's "Juliet the Girl" and others.

Application area. Rondo is widely used. as a form of works (instrumental, vocal-choral), as part of a cyclic composition (sonatas, symphonies), as a form of the opera stage.

VARIATIONS (theme with variations) (variation form) are presentations of the theme and several repetitions of it in a modified form.

Variation theme...

A A1 A2 A3 etc.

Variations onbassoostinato(ostinato, unchanged bass), XVI-XVII centuries, are variations built on the repetition of the theme in the bass. The theme can be a construction of 4 - 8 measures, closed (period or sentence) or open, invading cadence turning into a variation. The number of variations in the cycle is from several to several dozen). Bach. Chaconne d- mall for violin solo; "Crucifixus" from the Mass h- mall.

Variations on basso ostinato are mostly a genre passacaglia or chaconnes. Both – ancient, slow triple mournful dances - processions.

Their differences are indefinite. It is believed that the passacaglia is characterized by a monophonic theme starting from the third beat of the measure, and for the chaconne - the theme of chord-harmonic warehouse.

Later, variations on basso ostinato and passacaglia became synonymous, a genre of philosophical reflection on life, which explains the revival of interest in them among composers of the 20th century. Shostakovich. Symp. No. 8, part III; Violin Concerto, part III.

In cycles of variations of all types, as a rule, there is second form ,- more often, it is tripartite (less often, rondo): The first variations are usually close to the theme (first section). Intense variation in the following variations, the culminating phase is the middle section. The last few variations usually return to the sound of the original theme (reprise).

Strict variations. They can be called classical (XIX century). Can be called textured(texture is the main method of variation). Strict variations are called ornamental: all kinds of singing, melismatics melodically and rhythmically decorate, transform the leading voice, but the theme always “shines through”, is recognized.

The topic is usually in eg 2h or 3h form. Its structure in variations, cadences, harmony are preserved. Mozart. Dream. No. 11, part 1.

A kind of strict double variations. They are based on the presentation of two topics (usually contrasting genres) with their subsequent alternate variation.

Beth. Symph. No. 5, part II.

Free variations.(XIX century) They can be conditionally called genre: active variation (change in texture, tempo, tonality) often transforms each variation into a genre-individual play, turning variations into a suite cycle. Schumann. "Symphonic Etudes".

Variationssopranoostinato, (Glinka), - on a constant theme in soprano. The accompaniment varies (texture, harmony). The nature of the variation is often directly dependent on the content of the poetic text. Glinka. "Persian Choir"

VOCAL forms

Forms of vocal and choral music

The specificity of vocal forms is due to the synthetic nature of the genre: the interaction of music and poetry with distinctive principles of shaping.

Main - couplet shape and strophic. Their essence is in the invariably repeating musical material on different words(i.e. with a changing poetic text).

Couplet - the form is typically song. Its main feature is the presencesingsong Andchorus.

Verse I Verse II

A - B A - B, etc.

Chorus- this is a musical thought, thesis (in a poetic text, its function is informative). Function chorus- confirmation of the musical and poetic thought of the sing-along, - summary. In choruses with unchanged text (which is most typical), its function is to affirm the general idea of the piece.

A couplet usually combines 1-2 stanzas of a poetic text.

A stanza in poetry is several lines (verses) (from 2 or more), united by a system of rhymes. In a 4-line foot, for example, there may be an adjacent rhyme (pair) - aa bb, cross - ab ab, encompassing (belted) - abba.

According to the structure of the verse (the ratio of the verse and the chorus) can be different.

The structure of the chorus can be The role of the chorus in this case can be

be closed sentence. take repeating the last phrase, Sometimes - complete repetition of the chant in chorus, or

eyeliner ("Chapaev-hero walked in the Urals").

The chant may be in structure chorus - repetition of the second sentence.

period, the chorus can be complement phrase as if the third sentence, forming a complex period (“Why did I recognize you, my dear”).

Whole couplet May be in simple two-part form, Where Ih. - sing-along, IIh. - chorus, and even in a complex two-part (Dunaevsky. March of Enthusiasts.).

Finally, the verse and chorus can be on independent music. material, i.e. two different themes that do not form a form (“Song of the Motherland” by Dunaevsky).

"Song of the Motherland" is an example of a verse with a chorus in first place, which is no exception.

There are two refrains in a verse, more precisely, a refrain to a refrain; sometimes it is used as an instrumental act out (Alyabyev. "Nightingale", Glinka. "Venetian Night").

Couplet-variation form, - with a change (variation) of music. material in a verse (from several sounds to significant.).

strophic form, when there is no division into a chorus and a chorus in a repeating musical material:

I stanza II stanza III stanza

A A A etc. In a musical stanza, as in a verse, there are one, two (sometimes more) poetic stanzas. The form of the stanza can be one-part, two-part.

Varied stanza, - with changes in the musical material in the stanzas (from several sounds - A - A1 - A2, etc., to a significant update - A - B - C, etc.).

Other terminology in folklore.

Repetitive music. material in folk song(Anyway ) are called(as is customary with folk singers) couplet. The volume of the verse (and with it the structure, i.e. the form of the entire song) is determined by the poetic text. The couplet can be based on stanza(strophic structure), there may be one poetic line(line structure). A couplet may contain (be based on) even one phrase(phrase structure): Spring is red.// What did you bring us? // Mo-lo-du - shech - kam - // By di-cho - noch - ku…//. The couplet may have chorus. The chorus is called refrain, if it is an invariably repeating lexical construction: “Oh wound on Yvan”, “Ay lyuli-lyuli”, etc. According to its location, the refrain can be terminal(at the end of the verse) initial, framing. "Folk Musical Creativity" ed.

A.F. Kamaeva and T.Yu. Kamaeva. M., 2005. With. 29-35.

The term “linear form” is also used in professional academic music (A.P. Milka. St. Petersburg). The line principle of shaping distinguishes the choral works of Ippolitov-Ivanov “Peasant Feast”, “About the White Swan”. In the tool music - “A man plays the harmonica” by Tchaikovsky (Children's album.)

through form - a form of vocal music, the deployment of musical material in which is completely subordinated to the development of the content (plot) of a poetic work (usually complex compositionally). (Schubert. Ballad "Forest King")

In vocal-choral music, forms of instrumental music are also widely used.

And vice versa. Vocal forms are widely used in instrumental music, primarily in works of lyrical genres related to vocal ones. An example of this and a form with a chorus (Chopin. Waltz cis- mall; Mozart. Dream. No. 11, III part). Vocal principles of shaping are a stylistic feature of music (instrumental, in particular) of the 19th century.

Vocal music, we repeat, is a synthetic genre, a genre of interaction between music and poetry. Due to this,

when analyzing a vocal work, it is necessary to pay attention to some distinctive features of the language of vocal and choral music

(Based on the materials of the brochure by I. Lavrentyeva “Vocal forms in the course of the analysis of musical works.” M., 1978, pp. 6-37).

I. The nature of reading a poetic text.

Music (composer) can:

- Emphasize and deepen the dominant mood of the poem.

- To sharpen the contrast, sometimes barely outlined in the text.

Dargomyzhsky. "Titular Advisor".

- Reveal emotional and psychological overtones (hidden meaning).

Chaikovsky. "The cloud slept." The emphasized contrast of Lermontov's poetic text is leveled out by Tchaikovsky by the homogeneity of texture and even the repetition of muses. material in the 1st and 2nd stanzas. As a result, the restrained sound of the choir reveals the philosophical subtext of the poem - prayerfulness.

- Introduce picturesque and pictorial moments, “finish” the content.

Glinka. "Party song".

Rakhmaninov. "Spring Waters"

- Use the technique of "generalization through the genre."

Glinka. "Venetian Night". The genre of barcarolle, designated by Pushkin in the title of the poem, received a real sound in music.

- May be inadequate. individual reading of the text.

Cui. "Everything fell asleep." The pessimistic ending of Ratgauz's poem - “but without love, nature is dead; there is no happiness in it.” (features of doom, gloom - a stylistic feature of the poet's work) the composer "reads" in joyful, enthusiastic tones as a hymn of love.

II. T melody type:

recitative,

recitative-declamatory type,

recitation,

declamatory-ariose type or

cantilena?

This series reveals a pattern of gradual transition

from dominance of speech To intonation generalization,

from the closest expression to the dominance of purely musical

intonation of speech principles of development of melody,

which is also important for the performance interpretation of the work.

Musical form The construction of a musical work, the ratio of its parts. The simplest component of music is called a motive, 2-3 motives form a more complete musical structure - a phrase. Several phrases are combined into a sentence, and sentences into a period.

Couplet form A common form of vocal compositions in which the same melody is repeated unchanged (or changes only slightly), but with each repetition in a couplet a new text. Most folk songs are couplet. "Venetian Night" by M. I. Glinka "Toreador couplets" by J. Bizet

Variation form Variations (from Latin variation - change): 1. repeated repetition of the main melody with some of its changes. Moreover, the original theme is always enriched, embellished, becoming more and more interesting, without losing its recognizability. "Polyushko - field" L.K. Knipper

Rondo Rondo (from French rondo - round dance, walking in a circle) is a musical form consisting of repeated construction of the main section - a refrain, with which other episodes alternate. Rondo begins and ends with a refrain, as if forming a vicious circle. Farlaf's Rondo by M. I. Glinka

Suite Suite (fr. Suite - series, sequence). It consists of several independent parts - dances, usually contrasting with each other and united by a common artistic concept. « Suite in vintage style» A. Schnittke "Pictures at an Exhibition" M. Mussorgsky "Scheherazade" N. Rimsky-Korsakov

By “form” in music is meant the organization of the musical whole, the ways in which the musical material develops, as well as the genre designations that the authors give to their works. The composer in the process of creativity inevitably comes to a certain formal structure, a kind of plan, scheme, which serves as his basis for manifestations. creative imagination and skill.

The concept of form in music has many meanings. Some prefer to use this term only in relation to the structure of the work. Others attribute it to different genre designations, which can a) indicate the general nature of the music (for example, nocturne); b) suggest a special technique of composition (for example, motet or fugue); c) be based on a rhythmic pattern or tempo (minuet); d) include non-musical meanings or terms (for example, a symphonic poem); e) indicate the manner of performance (concert) or the number of performers (quartet); f) be associated with a specific historical era and its tastes (waltz), as well as with national color (polonaise). In reality, despite the abundance of such definitions, there are only a few fundamental formal structures, and if the composer stops at one or another genre designation, this does not mean that he is tied to any particular structural type.

The main compositional schemes or plans in music are based on three principles: repetition, variation and contrast, and are manifested in it through the interaction of rhythm, melody, harmony, timbre and texture.

Forms based on repetition, variation and contrast are characteristic of both vocal and instrumental genres. Vocal works are often characterized by a strophic form, within which different poetic stanzas correspond to the same melody and the element of contrast is introduced only by the poetic text: this is why the strophic form in its pure form is not found in instrumental genres. Both vocal and instrumental compositions are characterized by a form with a repeating section - a refrain. Sometimes the strophic form is modified by the introduction of one or more contrasting stanzas, in which case it approaches the so-called. composite composition.

The main strophic structures are as follows:

Couplet formAAAAA, etc.

Two-part formAB

Three-part formABA

Form with refrain (rondo) ABACA

Variation form AA 1 A 2 A 3 A 4 A 5, etc.

More complex forms arise as a result of changing or expanding the basic structures (for example, the rondo is often written according to the model: ABACABA). There are works based on the principle of continuous continuation: such is the “endless melody” in Wagner's musical dramas here it is impossible to draw a clear line between sections. The German term durchkomponiert (“based on through development”) is attached to such forms. This type of organization is typical for works associated with the word or focused on literary program, often to a specific literary work.

The principle of development, which originated in music much later than the principle of repetition, is especially typical of purely instrumental compositions. It differs from the strophic structures described above in that the thematic material is treated not only as a structural unit suitable for repetition and variation: elements are distinguished in it that change and interact with each other and with other themes (this principle is especially clearly demonstrated by the sonata form).

When combining musical fragments, each of which is written according to its own structural model, into a larger whole, a so-called. cyclic form (opera, oratorio, sonata, quartet, symphony, suite, concerto, etc.). In this case, each fragment is called a "part" and has its own designation of the tempo and character of the performance.

Form in music is an evolving, dynamic phenomenon. In the past, new forms have arisen as responses to liturgical needs, or to changes in the life of society, or to the invention of new instruments and new ways of playing them, and so on. We can safely say that the new functions of music, new conditions of social life, new composing and performing techniques, new inventions (for example, electronic instruments) will lead to the emergence of new forms (in the sense of genre designations) and new methods of composition. see also OPERA; BALLAD OPERA; OPERETTA; INVENTION; FUGA; ORATORIO; CONCERT; MARCH.

Music Encyclopedia , tt. 15. M., 19731982
Kruntyaeva T., Molokova N. Dictionary of foreign musical terms. M. St. Petersburg, 1996
Buluchevsky Yu., Fomin V. Brief musical vocabulary . SPb M., 1998
Brief Musical Dictionary-Reference. M., 1998
Music encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1998

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MUSICAL FORM. By “form” in music is meant the organization of the musical whole, the ways in which the musical material develops, as well as the genre designations that the authors give to their works. The composer in the process of creativity inevitably comes to a certain formal structure, a kind of plan, scheme, which serves him as the basis for the manifestations of creative imagination and skill.

The main strophic structures are as follows:

Couplet form A-A-A-A-A, etc.
Two-part formA-B
Three-part formA-B-A
Form with refrain (rondo) A-B-A-C-A
Variation form A-A 1 -A 2 -A 3 -A 4 -A 5, etc.

More complex forms arise as a result of changing or expanding the basic structures (for example, the rondo is often written according to the model: A-B-A-C-A-B-A). There are works based on the principle of continuous continuation: such is the "endless melody" in Wagner's musical dramas - here it is impossible to draw a clear line between sections. The German term durchkomponiert (“based on through development”) is attached to such forms. This type of organization is characteristic of works associated with a word or focused on a literary program, often on a specific literary work.

GLOSSARY OF MUSICAL FORMS

The main forms of Western European music are mentioned; forms of dance origin are discussed in more detail in the article DANCE.

Intermission

(French entracte, from entre, “between” and acte, “action”), instrumental music that sounds between acts of a dramatic play, opera, ballet, etc.

Arioso

(Italian arioso). Literally - "little aria"; the term refers to a vocal lyrical work with a freer form than an aria, including recitative elements.

Aria

(English and French air, Italian aria). In the very general sense- a melody, as well as: 1) a song for voice with accompaniment (for example, in English music of the Elizabethan era - a song with lute accompaniment); 2) an aria in French or English opera 17th–18th centuries The term is also applied to an instrumental piece of a lyrical nature, written in the manner of an aria (for example, in J.S. Bach's Third Orchestral Suite). 3) In early opera (17th century) - a short strophic song with accompaniment. In the opera and oratorio of subsequent centuries (up to Wagner) there are solo vocal fragments. The main form of the early opera aria is the da capo aria, using the symmetrical A-B-A structural model. see also OPERA.

Bagatelle

(French bagatelle "trinket"). small instrumental work(usually for keyboards). The first to use this name was F. Couperin, a late baroque composer; however, the genre was quite widespread in the music of the 19th century. only after Beethoven created his bagatelle op. 33, 119, 126.

Ballad

(English ballad, German Ballade, French ballade). It is a dance song in origin. Already in the 13th century. the English ballad became a distinct solo song form, and the genre did not change significantly in subsequent periods. Nowadays, a romantic-narrative, often sentimental song of a popular type is called a ballad.

In the French tradition, this term denotes a medieval form cultivated by trouvères - musicians of the knightly era in the north of France. The French ballad is similar to the canzone genre in the art of the troubadours of Provence and the form of the so-called. bar at the German minnesingers. It is basically a strophic solo song without accompaniment, usually consisting of three stanzas, with each stanza corresponding to musical structure A-A-B and in each stanza the last two lines form a refrain - unchanged for all stanzas. Master of the French school of the 14th century. Guillaume de Machaux was one of the first to introduce this structure into polyphonic works. In the 15th century other famous masters - for example, Guillaume Dufay and Josquin de Pres composed polyphonic ballads, and this form retained its significance throughout the 16th century.

In the German tradition, the term "ballad" refers to vocal and instrumental works of the 19th century based on romantic plots, often with the intervention of otherworldly forces: for example, Schubert's famous ballad forest king according to Goethe. Piano ballads of lyrical-dramatic content - not necessarily having a literary program, but implying some kind of romantic conflict - were composed by Chopin, Brahms, Fauré.

Balletto

(ital. balletto). A kind of madrigal, a vocal composition of a dance character, more of a chordal rather than a polyphonic warehouse; the peculiarity of the genre is the introduction of additional "meaningless" syllables into the text, such as "fa-la-la": hence another name for the genre - "fa-la", first noted by the English composer and theorist Thomas Morley (1597). This use of syllables, which became widespread in England, turned some sections of the balletto into purely rhythmic passages, reminiscent of instrumental dances. The same term is applied to purely instrumental sections in orchestral suites and clavier cycles by authors of the 17th and 18th centuries. (For example, Balletti Girolamo Frescobaldi) - as if in a reminder of the vocal origin of the genre.

Ballata

(Italian ballata). The Italian ballata does not come from the French ballad, but from the French virele (virelai, chanson balladée) - a dance song performed by a soloist or several singers. In the 13th century ballata was monophonic, and in the 14th century, in the era of the Italian ars nova, it becomes polyphonic. Usually the ballata consists of three stanzas, six lines each, with a monophonic refrain repeated at the beginning and end of the stanza. Famous ballatas belong to the Italian composer Francesco Landino.

Barcarolle

(Italian barcarola). An instrumental or vocal piece based on the song of the Venetian gondoliers (from Italian barca "boat"). The barcarolle usually has a calm tempo and is composed in 6/8 or 12/8 time, with an accompaniment depicting the lapping of the waves over the side of the gondola. The barcaroles of Chopin, Mendelssohn, Fauré (piano), Schubert (for voice and piano) and Offenbach (for soloists, choir and orchestra in opera) are famous. Tales of Hoffmann).

Variations

(lat. variatio, “change”). Variation is one of the fundamental principles of musical composition ( cm. introductory section of this article); variations can also be an independent instrumental form, which can be easily represented in the form of the following scheme: A (theme) - A 1 - A 2 - A 3 - A 4 - A 5, etc.

Divertissement

(Italian divertimento, French divertissement, "entertainment"). A form of light, entertaining instrumental music especially popular in Vienna in the late 18th century. The divertissement was composed for a small ensemble of wind or strings and in form resembled old suite, consisting of different dances. On the other hand, the divertissement contained some features of the future symphony. Many divertissements can be found in the legacy of Haydn and Mozart.

Duet

(italian. duetto from lat. duo, "two"). A vocal or instrumental piece for two performers, with or without accompaniment; the parties are equal.

Invention

(lat. inventio, "invention"). This term was first used by a composer of the 16th century. Clement Janequin to designate a chanson of complex shape. Later, the term was applied (like the term "fantasy") to pieces of the polyphonic type. In the writings of Francesco Bonporti it refers to the works for violin and basso continuo (1712); in the work of J.S. Bach the name Inventions wears the famous clavier cycle, consisting of 15 two-part polyphonic pieces. The second part of the cycle, which includes 15 three-part pieces, bears the author's title sinfonia, but today they are more commonly referred to as "inventions".

Intermezzo

(Italian intermezzo, "between"). It is performed between sections of a work (for example, between scenes in an opera), usually to indicate a gap in time between the action of the previous and subsequent scenes, or to fill a pause necessary for a change of scenery (for example, in rural honor Mascagni). In a different meaning, the term "intermezzo" appears in Italian opera of the late 17th and early 18th centuries: this was the name of a small performance of an entertaining nature with folk-type characters, whose adventures are very different from the "high" feelings of the heroes of a "serious" opera. These intermezzos, performed between the acts of the opera, were a great success; a prime example - Mistress Maid G. Pergolesi. They were also performed separately, thus serving as the basis of the comic opera genre. In the music of the Romantic era, the term "intermezzo" refers to small pieces of a meditative nature, such as the piano intermezzos of Schumann (op. 4) and Brahms (op. 76, 117).

Canon

(Greek kanon, “rule”, “sample”, “measure”). A polyphonic piece based on exact imitation: the voices enter alternately with the same theme. In the early examples of the genre, the word canon denoted a remark in the notes, indicating the way the canon was performed. Canonical techniques were first developed in the forms of the 14th century. - company (Italian rota, "wheel") and caccia (Italian caccia, "hunt"). If the melodic line can return to the beginning and repeat again, the so-called. endless, circular canon (rota, rondola, round). The canons are quite typical of ars nova music in the 14th century. and for the art of the Renaissance: for example, the so-called. a shellwalker is a canon in countermovement, where the melody is combined with its imitation, performed from the end to the beginning. A well-known example of such a canon is Guillaume de Machaux's chanson. My end is my beginning and my beginning is my end. Remarkable instrumental canons are found in the cycles of J.S. Bach Goldberg variations And musical offering, in the quartet op.76 (No. 2) by Haydn, in the violin sonata in A major by S. Frank. see also FUGA.

Cantata

(Italian . cantata). The name was first encountered in the 17th century, when the rapid development of instrumentalism made it necessary to clearly distinguish between genres, on the one hand, including voices (from Italian cantare, “to sing”), and on the other, written only for instruments (for example, sonata, from Italian sonare, “to sound”). The name "cantata" could refer to both a spiritual and a secular work; in the latter case, a form reminiscent of early opera, only smaller in size, was meant: it consisted of a series of arias and recitatives for one or more singers with accompaniment. The cantata genre reached its highest point in the work of Bach, who usually wrote cantatas based on Lutheran hymns (chorals) for soloists, choir and orchestra. see also ORATORIO.

Canzona

(Italian canzone, "song"). In the 16th century so called secular polyphonic songs of a simpler structure than the madrigal. "Canzone" could also mean an instrumental piece (canzone de sonar, "song for playing"). The instrumental canzona is similar in form to the ricercar or fantasy, differing only in a more mobile tempo. Opera in the 18th and 19th centuries a small, simple aria in form was called a canzone - in contrast to the usual, more detailed aria: such, for example, is the canzone "Voi che sapete" in Mozart's Wedding of Figaro. In the era of romanticism, an instrumental form based on song themes could be called a canzone: for example, the second part of Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony.

Canzonetta

(Italian canzonetta). Little canzona.

Capriccio, capriccio, caprice

(Italian capriccio, French caprice). An instrumental piece of completely free form. In the 16th–18th centuries the capriccio was a polyphonic, fugue work similar to fantasy, richercar or canzone (“Capriccio sopra il cucu” by G. Frescobaldi or capriccio from Bach's Second Clavier Partita). In the 19th century the term began to be attributed to a brilliantly virtuoso work (24 caprices for solo violin by Paganini), or to a small piece of an improvisational nature (piano caprices op. 116 by Brahms), or to an orchestral composition like a potpourri on folk or well-known themes ( Italian capriccio Tchaikovsky).

Quartet

(Italian quartetto; from Latin quartus, "fourth"). Composition for four instrumentalists, usually in the form of a sonata cycle. Most common string Quartet: two violins, viola, cello. The literature for this ensemble is exceptionally rich (Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms, a number of authors of the 20th century - for example, M. Ravel, B. Bartok, P. Hindemith, D. D. Shostakovich). The string quartet acquired great importance by the middle of the 18th century. The name "quartet" can also refer to an ensemble of four singers with or without accompaniment (for example, the quartet from Verdi's opera Rigoletto). There are also other compositions of instrumental quartets.

Quintet

(Italian quintetto; from Latin quintus, "fifth"). Composition for five instrumentalists, usually in the form of a sonata cycle. Usually, another instrument is added to a string quartet, such as a clarinet (Mozart Quintet in A Major, K. 581) or a piano (Brahms Quintet in F Minor, op. 88). Like the term "quartet", "quintet" can refer to an ensemble of singers (Wagner, Nuremberg Meistersingers). The quintet of wind instruments is quite common.

Conduct

(lat. conductus, from conduco, “I lead”, “accompany”). In the 12th-13th centuries. a choral work into a Latin text, secular or spiritual. Conducts were first monophonic, and then polyphonic - for two, three or even four voices. Unlike other forms of early polyphony, the conduct is a free composition; it did not use one or another pre-existing melody (the so-called cantus firmus). Another characteristic feature of the conduct is the use of a single text and a single rhythmic pattern in all voices.

Concert

(Italian concerto, from Latin concertare, "compete"). Usually an essay cyclic form for one or more soloists and orchestra. After 1750, the concerto and the symphony are built on approximately the same model, but, unlike the symphony, the concerto usually consists of three parts.

concerto grosso

(Italian concerto grosso, " big concert"). A genre typical of the High Baroque era (early 18th century), usually a three-part (fast-slow-fast) or four-part (slow-fast-slow-fast) cycle in which two or more concert soloists (concertino) “compete” with the rest of the orchestra or ensemble (tutti or ripieno).

Katch

(English catch, from Italian caccia, "hunt"). Circular, endless canon (English synonym - "round") for three or more voices, common in English music of the 17th-18th centuries. About fifty caches composed by Henry Purcell are known.

Madrigal

(Italian madrigale). One of the main genres of polyphonic choral music. An early, medieval madrigal (Jacopo da Bologna, Francesco Landino) was a two- or three-voice work that used the techniques of imitation polyphony. The instrumental accompaniment served to support the voices or was an interlude-"acting out". As a rule, the madrigal was composed in strophic form, but it always contained a final "ritornello" in which new musical material appeared.

The developed form of the Renaissance madrigal was first influenced by frottola. One of the highest achievements of the music of its time, the Renaissance madrigal remained a polyphonic form (four-, five- or six-voice), but it also had a strong homophonic (vertical, chordal) beginning. The evolution of the genre on Italian soil went from the simple, austere choirs of Jacob Arcadelta or Orazio Vecchi to the complex in texture and emotionally rich compositions of such authors as Luca Marenzio, Carlo Gesualdo and Claudio Monteverdi. The heyday of the English madrigal (William Bird, Thomas Morley, Orlando Gibbons) refers to more late period. The French analogue of the madrigal - chanson (Clement Janequin) was distinguished by the wide use of visual, onomatopoeic techniques. In German art, the polyphonic song (Lied) as a national variant of the madrigal was not as widespread as in other countries, and the brightest masters of this genre were not Germans (the Dutchman Orlando Lasso, the Flemish Jacob Reniard).

March

(French marche). Instrumental music, usually in double meter, originally intended to accompany different kind processions, military or civilian. The march exists in two forms - applied and stylized; the second form can be represented by both independent works and parts of cycles. The structure of the march is in principle three-part; first section - the main theme is replaced by a trio (there may be one or more), followed by a reprise of the first section. Marches were composed for military brass bands (for example, pieces by J.F. Sousa, popular in America), as well as for a symphony orchestra (Beethoven, Wagner, Verdi, Prokofiev), for pianoforte (for example, Beethoven, op. 26 and 35) and for other compositions. see also MARCH.

Minuet.

Mass

(Latin missa, German Messe, English mass). Mass, the Eucharistic service, is the main service in the Catholic Church (similar to the Orthodox liturgy). The Mass contains unchanging sections, used in any service (ordinary), and sections dedicated to certain days of the church year (propria). The structure and texts of the mass were finally formed by the 11th century. The service consists of five main parts, named after the first words of the chants that open these parts: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei. They are followed by the end of the mass (Ite, Missa est ecclesia, “Go, the meeting is dissolved”; in the Orthodox liturgy, dismissal). Styles reflected in the musical incarnations of the mass different eras, while the most artistically striking works often turned out to be of little use for use at worship; it also happened that masses were composed by non-Catholic composers. Among the most famous examples of the genre are the masses by Guillaume de Machaux, Guillaume Dufay, Jean Ockeghem, Josquin des Pres, Giovanni Palestrina, as well as Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Berlioz, Verdi, Fauré, Stravinsky and others. see also MASS.

Motet

(English, French motet). The name appears in the 13th century. and refers to vocal works in which the Gregorian chant melody (tenor) is polyphonically combined with two other melodic lines (duplum and triplum). Works of this kind began to be called motets when the verbal text (denoted by the word mot) began to be transferred to a duplum (therefore called a motet), i.e. into a voice that was previously just vocalized. In the 13th century motets were, as a rule, multi-text, i.e. different parties sounded different texts, both ecclesiastical and secular, it even happened in different languages.

Unlike the medieval one, the Renaissance motet was written only on the church text, the same for this work. However, even in this form, the non-simultaneity of pronouncing words in different voices was preserved - most often this was the result of the widespread use of imitations, and this feature became the most characteristic feature of the motet genre in general.

In the Baroque era, when instrumental genres became widespread, the role of the motet was transferred to the cantata, i.e. to the vocal-instrumental form, but the purely vocal motet continues to exist: motets were composed for various kinds of celebrations, and among their authors we find the greatest masters of the era. The history of the motet dates back about seven centuries, and in the field of Western church music this genre is second in importance only to the mass. Magnificent examples of motets can be found in the works of Perotin, Guillaume de Machaux, John Dunstable, Guillaume Dufay, Jean Ockeghem, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin de Pre, Orlando Lasso, Palestrina, Thomas Louis de Victoria, William Byrd, Heinrich Schutz, Bach, Mozart, Mendelssohn, Brahms and others.

Musical drama.

The term is mainly used when applied to the operas of Wagner and his imitators. Cm. OPERA; WAGNER, RICHARD.

Nocturne

(French nocturne, Italian notturno, "night"). At the end of the 18th century Italian word notturno called chamber music designed for evening entertainment. In the era of romanticism, nocturne is a lyrical instrumental piece, often distinguished by a developed chordal texture. The first to call his piano pieces "nocturnes" was the Irish composer and pianist J. Field; his compositions served as a model for Chopin's nocturnes and other literature of this genre. In the works of Mendelssohn and Debussy one can also find orchestral nocturnes.

Opera.

Oratorio.

Organum

(Latin organum from Greek organon, "tool", "tool"). One of the earliest polyphonic forms, first described in a theoretical treatise Musica Enchiriadis(c. 900). The oldest type of organum, parallel, consisted of two voices - the main one, which contained the melody of the Gregorian chant (vox principalis) and the additional one, in which the same melody sounded a fourth or fifth higher or lower (vox organalis). Later they began to add a third voice - free counterpoint. In the early organum, all voices had the same rhythmic pattern and were recorded in free meter, without barlines; later, vox organalis acquired a melismatic character, i.e. there were already several rhythmic units per syllable of the text. Among the organum samples created French masters schools of the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris (Leonin, Perotin), there are those in which sections where there are several sounds of counterpoint for one sound of the main text alternate with sections in which voices move in one meter, but contain different melodic material. Subsequently, the application of different texts to such metrically homogeneous lines gave impetus to the emergence of a new polyphonic form - the motet.

Partita

(Italian partita from Latin pars, “part”). Literally - a multi-part composition; the name was used by J.S. Bach for a number of his instrumental suites.

Passacaglia

(Italian passacaglia; Spanish pasacalle, "street song"). The origin of the genre is a slow dance in triple meter, possibly of Spanish origin. Later, the passacaglia began to be called variations on a constantly recurring theme, which was located most often in the bass, but sometimes in other voices. Thus, this form is very close to the chaconne, and often identical to it. Both the passacaglia and the chaconne appear in 17th-century keyboard music. The most famous examples of the genre are the passacaglia in C minor for organ by J.S. Bach, and at a later time - the passacaglia in the finale of the Fourth Symphony by I. Brahms, in the Fourth String Quartet by P. Hindemith and in the First Symphony by S. Barber.

Passions

(literally “passion”; from Latin passio, “suffering”). An oratorio that tells a story last days the life of the Savior and his death on the cross; text - according to one of the four gospels.

Pastoral

(French pastorale, "shepherd's music"). A piece in 6/8 or 12/8 time with a graceful brooding melody, often supported by trailing sounds in the bass, representing a shepherd's bagpipes. The pastoral genre is often found in works related to the theme of the Nativity of Christ (for example, A. Corelli's Concerto Grosso No. 8, written for the Christmas holiday; Bach's Christmas Oratorio, Messiah Handel).

Song (romance)

In Russian, there is a fundamental difference between the terms "song" and "romance": the first refers primarily to folklore genres, as well as to different types their processing and modifications in composer's work; the second - to works for voice with accompaniment, mainly professional and professional poetic texts, but sometimes folklore (for example, the Russian urban romance of the 19th century, which is a popular, folklorized version professional genre). IN German the term Lied, corresponding to the English song, is widespread; both of them can refer to different phenomena.

The term Lied appears in the chivalric songs of the Minnesingers (Walther von der Vogelweide); later they denoted: the works of the mastersingers (for example, the most famous among them - Hans Sachs); polyphonic songs of the 16th century. (Ludwig Senfl, Orlando Lasso); songs of the 17th century with an accompaniment of the basso continuo type, which was performed on any keyboard instrument (or in general on any instrument where it is possible to extract chords), sometimes along with strings or wind instruments (Adam Krieger); songs of the 18th century, in which folklore simplicity is combined with refined lyricism; the magnificent songs of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven; the art song of Germany of the romantic era is a huge corpus of wonderful vocal lyrics. The largest authors of the romantic art song were Schubert (more than 600 songs), Schumann, G. Wolf, R. Franz, R. Strauss and G. Mahler. In Russian, both the term “song” and the term “romance” are used in relation to these works. In the same way, both terms can be applied to works in this genre by Russian classics, from Glinka to Prokofiev; essays contemporary authors more often called "romances", but sometimes also "songs" (for example, Sviridov's songs to the verses of Burns, Yesenin, Blok).

The expression "song form" often refers to a simple two-part (A-B) or three-part (A-B-A) instrumental form that has a song as its source, usually folklore.

Prelude

(French prelude; from Latin praeludere, "to play before"). An instrumental piece that serves as an introduction to subsequent music. In the 15th and 16th centuries preludes were sometimes called small pieces for the lute (Francesco Spinacchino) or for the clavier (William Bird, John Bull) in chord texture. Starting from the 17th century. the prelude forms a cycle with the fugue, as, for example, in Well-Tempered Clavier Bach, or opens a suite ( English suites Bach), or serves as an introduction to the singing of the chorale (choral preludes). In the 19th century an operatic overture, especially one written in free form, can also be called a prelude. At the same time, the name "prelude" as a designation of an independent genre appears in piano literature (Chopin, Rachmaninov, Scriabin), as well as in orchestral literature (Debussy's symphonic prelude Afternoon of a Faun).

Rhapsody

(Greek rhapsodia; from rhaptein, "to stitch", "compose", "compose" and ode, "song"). Rhapsody can be called an instrumental (occasionally vocal - for example, by Brahms) composition written in a free, improvisational, epic style, sometimes including genuine folk motifs ( Hungarian Rhapsodies Liszt, Blues Rhapsody Gershwin).

Recitative

(italian. recitative; from recitare, "recite", "read aloud", "tell"). Melodized speech, or musical recitation, was first used in the early operas of the 16th century, although the roots of the recitative no doubt go back to the ancient singing of the Catholic liturgy (cantus planus). As an independent means of expression recitative was especially cultivated in the early baroque period: in recitative, composers tried to reproduce natural speech intonations in a generalized form, enhancing their meaning by means of melody and harmony. Then recitatives usually sounded accompanied by a clavier or organ, and the bass line was duplicated by strings or wind instruments. In opera and oratorio of the 17th–19th centuries. the recitative served the development of dramatic action: it reproduced the conversations or monologues of the characters, which were placed between arias, ensembles and choirs. The simplest recitative was called in Italian recitativo secco ("dry recitative"): it was performed in free rhythm and only occasionally supported by chords. Then a more melodic and expressive recitative began to prevail (well known from the operas of K.V. Gluck, written after his operatic reform): it was called recitativo accompagnato (or stromentato) - “accompanied”, or “instrumental” recitative - and was accompanied by the entire orchestra. A brilliant example of expressive instrumental recitative is contained in the finale of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.

Reachercar

(Italian ricercar; from ricercare, "to seek"). An instrumental form very common in the art of the 16th-17th centuries. It is characterized by a constant search (which is reflected in the title) of recurring themes and their place in the overall structure of the composition. Like fantasy, the ricercar in the instrumental realm corresponds to the motet in the vocal realm: the form arises from the successive fugue development of several melodies. In contrast to the motet, where the emergence of new themes is due to the appearance of new poetic (or prose) lines, in ricercara the primacy still belongs to one theme, and therefore this form can be considered the forerunner of the highly developed fugue of the Bach era. The term "richercar" can also refer to a non-imitative work written in a free instrumental style and reminiscent of a toccata in character. Cm. FUGA.

Rondo

(French rondeau; from rond, "circle"). One of the oldest vocal and dance forms. Typical 13th century rondo was a homophonic (non-polyphonic) work: the trouveurs of Northern France surrounded each stanza of their songs with a repeating refrain (the form "virele" ) . For composers such as Guillaume de Machaux, Gilles Benchois and Guillaume Dufay, rondo-virele became polyphonic. In the Spanish cantigas of the 13th century. - hymns dedicated to the Virgin Mary - similar structures were used, and they also took place in the Italian ballata of the 14th century. and Spanish Villancico of the 16th century. In the 17th century rondo performed as part of an instrumental suite of dances (F. Couperin, J. Chambonière, J. F. Rameau): repeated refrains separated various episodes from each other.

The Italian analogue of the French form (rondo) became widely used from the beginning of the 18th century. to designate independent instrumental pieces. The structural principle of this rondo was the appearance of a repeating section as a frame for episodes exposing new themes. The main type of rondo: A-B-A-C-A. By the end of the 18th century rondo-shaped forms became more complex (А–В–А–С–А–В–А) and approached variational ones (А–В–А 1 –В–А 2 –С–А 3 ...) or even (as a result end-to-end development main themes) to sonatas.

Sequence

(lat. sequentia, “following”, “what follows”). Musical and textual expansion of the "Alleluia" chant in the Catholic Mass. Around the 10th c. the custom spread to attach an additional Latin text (tropes) to the jubilee (the melismatic chant that ends the “Hallelujah”) and previously used different vowels (most often “a” as the last vowel of the word “Hallelujah”). As a result, an independent genre of Latin liturgical poetry arose - sequence, associated mainly with public holidays church year. In the Middle Ages, hundreds of different sequences were performed, but by the decree of the Council of Trent (1545) they were removed from the liturgy, with the exception of four sequences: the famous Dies irae(about Judgment Day) Lauda Sion Salvatorem(on the feast of the Body of the Lord), Veni sancte spiritus(on the feast of the Trinity), Victimae paschali laudes(Easter); later the sequence was also allowed Stabat mater(Mother of God).

Sextet

(German Sextett; from Latin sextus, "sixth"). This term usually refers to a work written in the form of a sonata cycle for six performers. The composition of a sextet may vary; most often it is a string quartet with two added instruments (for example, Mozart's sextet in F major, K. 522, for quartet and two horns, Brahms sextet in B flat major, op. 18, for two violins, two violas and two cellos). The term "sextet" may also refer to vocal ensemble with or without accompaniment (sextets in operas Wedding of Figaro Mozart and Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti).

Serenade

(French serenade, Italian serenata, “evening music” or “evening entertainment”). By the end of the 18th century this name no longer implied evening or night performance (for example, Little night music, Eine kleine Nachtmusik by Mozart). Like divertissement, the serenade was a common genre of composition for a small instrumental ensemble, which combined the features of the genre of the suite, which is fading into the past, and the genre of the symphony, directed towards the future. The serenade included, on the one hand, minuets, marches and the like, and on the other hand, variations and movements written in sonata or rondo-sonata forms. Very famous instrumental serenades can be found in the legacy of Mozart, Brahms, Tchaikovsky and Dvorak. As a vocal genre, the serenade is an appeal to the beloved, once performed at night under the window of a lady (examples: a serenade from Don Juan Mozart, Schubert romance Evening serenade).

symphonic poem.

A program orchestral composition is a genre that became widespread in the era of romanticism and includes the features of a program symphony and a concert overture (R. Strauss, Liszt, Smetana, Rimsky-Korsakov, etc.).

Scherzo

(Italian scherzo, "joke"). From the middle of the 18th century this word is found in the names of instrumental or vocal pieces of a playful nature (Claudio Monteverdi, Scherzi Musicali, 1607; Johann Gottlieb Walther, scherzo for violin solo, 1676). After 1750 the scherzo becomes exclusively instrumental genre, which is characterized fast pace and, as a rule, a tripartite size. At this time, the scherzo is found mainly as part of the sonata cycle (symphony, quartet). The scherzo is of particular importance in Beethoven's symphonies (beginning with the Second), where it finally displaces the minuet that was previously in this place. The scherzo usually retains the three-part form inherited from the minuet (scherzo - trio - scherzo); sometimes several trios may also appear (for example, in Brahms' Second Symphony). In the work of Chopin, Brahms and other composers of the same era, the scherzo also becomes an independent piano genre: these are small pieces of a rhapsodic impetuous nature with a trio of predominantly lyrical content. The subtitle "scherzo" gave P.Duc to his symphonic poem The Sorcerer's Apprentice.

Sonata

(Italian sonata; from sonare, "to sound"). In the exact meaning of the term - a multi-part composition for piano or string or wind instrument with piano. Sonata form is a fundamental structure that is very often used in the first (and also in other) parts of solo instrumental sonatas, works for instrumental ensembles, symphonies, concertos, etc. Meaning sonata form in that the first appearance of topics (exposition) is replaced by their development (development) and then return (reprise). More about the history of sonata form and the possible meanings of the term "sonata" cm. SONATA. Varieties of form are: rondo-sonata - a type that often appears in the finals symphonic cycles and combining the features of the sonata (exposition, development, reprise) and rondo (the return of the first theme in the developing sections); sonatina (literally: "small sonata") - it either has fewer parts than in a regular sonata, or the parts themselves are simpler and shorter (sonatinas for piano by M. Clementi, for violin and piano by F. Schubert). In principle, the term "sonata" is applied to easy pieces for beginners, but there are also sonatinas (for example, M. Ravel's piano cycle), which require considerable technical skill from the performer.

Suite

(French suite, “sequence”). The name implies a sequence of instrumental pieces (stylized dances) or instrumental fragments from opera, ballet, music for drama, etc. Cm. SUITE.

Toccata

(Italian toccata). From the end of the 16th century this title refers to compositions for keyboard instruments written in a free improvisational manner. The word toccata means “touch”, “strike”, in this case a short blow on the keys, in contrast to sonata, i.e. lingering "sound" of stringed or wind instruments. In addition, the origin of the term "toccata" points to an even earlier era, when this word referred to the rhythm beaten by a military drum, or brass fanfare (for example, toccata from the opera Orpheus Monteverdi). Toccata for keyboards in the 16th century. (Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Luzzasco Luzzacchi) used a typically clavier technique and turned into virtuoso works, where improvisational passages alternated with solemn choral sounds. In some toccatas (especially those of Claudio Perulo and J. Frescobaldi) there are polyphonic sections. Toccata was also used as an introduction to ricercar or fugue. Toccatas of modern times (Schumann, Debussy, Ravel, Prokofiev) are piano pieces that are close in genre to the concert etude.

Trio

(Italian trio; from Latin tres, tria, “three”). Musical piece for three performers. The trio became widespread in the classical era as a type of instrumental music that used the sonata form. The most common are piano (violin, cello, pianoforte) and string (violin, viola, cello) trios. A vocal trio (with or without accompaniment) is usually called a tercet.

The term "trio" also refers to the middle part of a minuet, scherzo, march or other three-part form. In this sense, the trio can generally be understood as a contrasting section between the exposition of the main thematic material and its repetition. In the old days, this section was composed for three solo instruments, and the term "trio" itself remained in use after the golden age of the concerto grosso genre, although the middle sections of the compositions were no longer instrumented for three, but for more instruments.

Trio

three, but for more instruments.

Trio sonata

(Italian trio-sonata). The main form of chamber instrumental music of the Baroque era. A trio sonata was composed for two high instruments, usually violins, and a basso continuo, usually represented by a cello and some kind of keyboard instrument or lute - thus, not three, but four performers were required. The heyday of the trio sonata in all European music centers there was a period from 1625 to 1750, then, due to the death of the basso continuo as a functionally necessary element of the composition, the trio sonata was reborn into a string quartet. The trio-sonata genre combines the features of an old instrumental dance suite with elements of a new virtuoso string playing technique, old polyphonic and new homophonic styles; for the trio sonata, a direct anticipation of the methods of thematic development in sonata form is also typical. The main types of trio sonata were: sonata da chiesa (“church sonata”, intended for concert performance) and sonata da camera ("home sonata", performed at home). The second type in many ways resembled a suite; the first, containing four parts (slow - fast - slow - fast), to some extent approached the baroque overture. By the beginning of the 18th century the differences between them have almost disappeared. Among the outstanding authors of trio sonatas we find S. Rossi, G. Legrenzi, A. Corelli, D. Buxtehude, J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel and J. M. Leclerc; this genre is also found later - for example, in Gluck and Haydn.

Overture

(French ouverture, "opening"). The name originally referred to an orchestral introduction performed before an opera, but soon came to mean introductions to works of other genres, such as cantatas or instrumental suites. This term acquires a completely definite meaning in the French court opera of the 17th century, namely from J.B. Lully. Such a French overture necessarily contained three sections: slowly - quickly - slowly. Slow sections, usually sustained in a punctuated rhythm, were associated with solemn court ceremonial; in the fast sections, the musical texture of the work was provided by the fugue development of the themes. The Italian opera overture, which finally took shape in the work of A. Scarlatti, was called "sinfonia" and also consisted of three sections, but in the reverse sequence of tempos: fast - slow - fast. The genre of the symphony grew out of such an overture ( cm. SYMPHONY), and even in 1793 Haydn's symphonies were still called "overtures" when they were performed in London. At the end of the 18th century opera overtures were composed mainly in sonata form and practically represented nothing more than the first part of the classical sonata-symphony cycle. Some composers (among them Gluck, Mozart and Beethoven) began to include themes from the corresponding opera in opera overtures. Classical overtures are also found in the genre of music for drama theater (the most striking example is Egmont Beethoven). Overtures in the opera of the next era, while retaining the features of the sonata form, more and more turn into a brief musical retelling of the content of the opera on its own thematic material. Concert overtures also appear as an independent genre. symphonic music program type (Mendelssohn, Brahms, Tchaikovsky).

Fantasy

(Greek phantasia). The instrumental composition is of a very free construction; in it, as the English composer and theorist T. Morley put it, “the composer is not attached to anything” (Morley meant a verbal text). In the 16th century fantasy was composed, as a rule, for the lute, clavier or instrumental ensemble in a polyphonic style, reminiscent of the ricercar or canzona style. In the 17th and 18th centuries the genre is increasingly enriched with elements of an improvisational nature - for example, in organ and clavier compositions Buxtehude, Bach, Mozart. In the 19th century the name "fantasy" refers to instrumental, mainly piano pieces, to a certain extent free from established forms (for example, Sonata quasi una fantasia - Moonlight Sonata Beethoven, the fantasies of Chopin and Schumann). Fantasy could also be called improvisation on favorite topic(for example fantasy wanderer Schubert on the theme of the romance of the same name, Fantasy on a Theme by Thomas Tallis Vaughan Williams).

In English, the term voluntary, similar in meaning to "fantasy", can refer to musical accompaniment Anglican church service (improvisational sections played during processions or at the end of worship) or to free-form instrumental works (masters of this genre were John Blow and Henry Purcell).

Frottola

(Italian frottola, from frotta "crowd"). The forerunner of the Renaissance madrigal, frottola was cultivated mainly in northern Italy in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Frottolas were notable for liveliness of rhythm, they were composed in three- or four-voice textures, and were often performed by a singer with instrumental accompaniment.

Fugue

(lat., ital. fuga, “running”). A work based on the use of imitation polyphony. The form of the fugue, which has reached perfection in Bach's work, is the result of a long development of various counterpoint techniques and different forms, including canon, motet and ricercar. Fugues are composed for any number of voices (starting with two). The fugue opens with a statement of the theme (leader) in one voice, then other voices enter successively with the same theme. The second carrying out of the theme, often with a variation of it, is called the answer; while the answer sounds, the first voice continues to develop its melodic line - it counterpoints the answer (counterposition). In double fugues, such counterpoint takes on the meaning of a second theme (counter-theme). The introductions of all the voices form the exposition of the fugue. Exposure can be followed by either a counter-exposure (second exposure) or polyphonic development the whole topic or its elements (episodes). In complex fugues, a variety of polyphonic techniques are used: increase (increase in the rhythmic value of all the sounds of the theme), decrease, inversion (reversal: the intervals of the theme are taken in the opposite direction - for example, instead of a quart up, a quart down), stretta (accelerated entry of voices "overlapping" each other), and sometimes combinations of such techniques. The fugue genre is of great importance in both instrumental and vocal forms. Fugues can be independent pieces, combined with a prelude, toccata, etc., and finally, they can be part of a large work or cycle. The techniques characteristic of the fugue are often used in the developing sections of the sonata form.

The double fugue, as already mentioned, is based on two themes that can enter and develop together or separately, but in the final section they are necessarily combined in counterpoint. see also FUGA.

choral

(German Choral). Initially, the Gregorian monophonic church chant was called the chorale; later the name was assigned to Lutheran hymns. Martin Luther, who sought to ensure that all parishioners took part in worship, introduced into it hymns suitable for community singing. Thus the chorale, both as a separate hymn and as part of a larger composition, became the center of the Protestant liturgy. The musical sources of the chorale were: a) church hymns that existed before the Reformation; b) secular songs; c) newly composed melodies with texts, among which the reformist hymn is the most famous Ein" feste Burg ist unser Gott (Strong stronghold our God). Almost all German masters of the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries. processed choral melodies. Chorals also form the basis of other liturgical compositions, including: 1) chorale prelude - an organ piece based on the chorale melody and serving as an introduction to community singing; 2) choral fantasy - an organ piece that develops the melody of the chorale in an improvisational manner; 3) choral partita - a large-scale instrumental work on the theme of a chorale; 4) choral motet - a detailed choral work; 5) chorale cantata - a large work for choir, soloists and orchestra using melodies of Lutheran hymns. The most perfect choral compositions that have come down to us belong to Michael Pretorius and J.S. Bach.

Chaconne

(Spanish chacona, Italian ciaconna). By origin - a slow three-part dance; later - a composition based on varying basso continuo or a melodic line (or chord progression) in bass voices (basso ostinato). The chaconne is very close to the passacaglia. Both of them appear for the first time at the beginning of the 17th century. in works for keyboard instruments. The most famous example of the genre is Bach's chaconne from the partita in D minor for solo violin. There is a current tendency to refer to the name "chaconne" as any variation on an unchanging chord progression, but such a narrowed view is not consistent with the historical meaning of the term.

Chanson

(French chanson, “song”; in Russian, the term “chanson” is feminine and does not decline). So they call not only songs, but also instrumental pieces in a vocal style. IN secular music France, there were a number of varieties of chanson: 1) songs of medieval troubadours and trouveurs; 2) dance songs of the 14th century. (Guillaume de Macho); 3) polyphonic polyphonic choirs of the 15th and 16th centuries. (Gilles Benchois and Guillaume Dufay, Jean Okegem, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin de Pres); this genre reaches its peak in the French version of the Italian Renaissance madrigal (Clement Jeannequin, Orlando Lasso, Thomas Crekiyon). Later, the name "chanson" could refer to a short strophic song of a popular type or to a French romance for voice with piano accompaniment, similar to the German Lied (Debussy, Fauré, Ravel, Poulenc). Modern pop French songs are also called chanson.

Impromptu

(lat. expromptus from the verb expromo, “I spread”, “bring down”; French impromtu). The meaning of the Latin word suggests that impromptu is a play composed under the influence of a given moment, a given situation. In piano literature of the 19th century. these are small pieces of free form, not necessarily of an improvisational nature. For example, impromptu by Schubert (op. 90) or Chopin (op. 29, 36) have a clear, mostly tripartite structure.

Etude

(French etude, "study"). A piece for mastering and improving any technique: performance of staccato, octaves, double notes (on string instruments), receiving a "double or triple tongue" (on wind instruments), etc. In the 19th century the concert etude is widely used (especially in piano literature). In this genre, the development of any technical technique is combined with the independent artistic value of music. Brilliant concert studies were composed by Chopin, Schumann and Liszt. The toccata of the 17th and 18th centuries can be considered the forerunner of the concert form of the genre, in which a purely virtuoso element played a special role.

Literature:

Music Encyclopedia, tt. 1–5. M., 1973–1982
Kruntyaeva T., Molokova N. Dictionary of foreign musical terms. M. - St. Petersburg, 1996
Buluchevsky Yu., Fomin V. Brief Music Dictionary. SPb - M., 1998
Brief Musical Dictionary-Reference. M., 1998
Music encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1998

Construction (form) of music

Form(lat. forma - appearance, appearance, image, appearance, beauty)

musical form - this is a certain order of parts and sections in a piece of music.

The smallest structure in musical speech is motive(from the Latin - "I move"). This is the name of the most vivid, memorable melodic turn. The size of the motive can be different - from one or two sounds to a whole measure.

A larger musical construction that includes several motifs is called − phrase(in Greek - "expression"). For a long time, phrase length has been associated with breathing in vocal music. And only with the development of instrumental music, this concept became more broad.

Phrases are combined into offers. The standard sentence size is 4 bars. Offers are ending cadences (from the Latin "I end") - the final musical turn. Cadence completes a piece of music, its part or a separate structure. There are many varieties of cadences that differ in functional content (T, S, D, VI).

Proposals are made up period. The period is a complete, independent musical form. A period usually consists of 2 sentences with different cadences. There is a period of repeated and non-repeated structure, square (8 cycles) and non-square (from 5 cycles), small (8 tons) and large (16 tons). Sometimes a period has an additional section that sounds like a musical afterword, such a section, depending on the location of the cadence, may be called an addition or extension.

The period is one of the main forms in vocal music, organizing a verse or chorus. The simplest vocal form in which the music remains the same but the words change is couplet form. Its simplicity explains its widespread use. There is not a single composer who created vocal music who would not have written a song in couplet form (see songs and romances by Schubert, Mozart, Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninov and other composers).

One part form (A) is a simple musical form consisting of one period. This form is most often found in miniatures by Romantic composers who sought to capture an elusive moment (Chopin's Preludes are a prime example), or in children's music to make performance more accessible. Form scheme: A or A1

Two-part form (AB) is a simple musical form consisting of two periods. Quite often, the second period is built on the material of the first (i.e., repeated structure - see some of Scriabin's Preludes), but there are works in which the periods are different (Lyubava's Song from 2d. "Sadko" by Rimsky-Korsakov; Rosina's Aria from 2d. "The Barber of Seville" by Rossini). Form scheme: A A1 or A B.

The most important (and simplest) principle for creating a musical form is repetition. Its extraordinary popularity is due to several reasons:

repetition allows us to return the musical thought and makes it possible to better listen to it, to appreciate previously unnoticed artistic details;

repetition helps to clearly divide the form into parts delimited from each other;

the repetition of musical material after the presentation of the new one completes the form, asserting the supremacy of the original image.

Thus, forms based on repetition have become unusually widespread in music in numerous variants. And the simplest of them is the tripartite form (ABA), consisting of three periods, where

A - is a presentation of a musical theme;

B - development of the theme A or new contrasting material; A - reprise, exact or modified repetition of part A.

If the reprise exactly repeats the first part, it is often not even written out with notes, but is denoted: play from the beginning to the word "End" (in Italian: dacapoalFine).

The three-part form (like all the previous ones) is simple and complex. Unlike the simple three-part form, in which each part is written in the form of a period, in the complex three-part form, the parts are not a period, but a simple two-part or three-part form. For example:

A B A

ababa

The three-part form is one of the most popular principles for constructing a piece of music. Pieces written in the simple three-part form can be found in the repertoire of every musician: these are plays, dances, marches, romances, works for orchestra, parts or sections of large compositions. Great amount Examples for a simple and complex 3-part form are contained in the works of P.I.

A more complex form is also based on the principle of repetition, rooted in the folk song and dance tradition of France. We are talking about the form of rondo (translated from French means “circle, round dance, circular round dance”). From this alternation, the rondo form arose.

Like a chorus folk song, in the rondo there is a theme that repeats - this is a refrain. The refrain (in French - “chorus”) must sound at least 3 times and can have any simple form: period, two-part or three-part.

Between repetitions of the refrain, various musical constructions are heard, which are called episodes. Thus, rondo is a form based on the alternation of refrain with episodes.

A B A C A

refrain episode refrain episode refrain

The rondo form is widely used in instrumental and vocal music: instrumental pieces (Mozart, Turkish March from the Piano Sonata in A Major, No. 11, Figaro's Aria "The Frisky Boy" from the opera "The Marriage of Figaro"; Beethoven, "To Elise", "Rage over the Lost Penny" and many others), romances and songs (Glinka, "A Passing Song"; Dargomyzhsky "Star corporal"), choirs, opera arias(Glinka, Antonida's Rondo from Ivan Susanin, Farlaf's Rondo from Ruslan and Lyudmila), the last parts of major forms - sonatas and symphonies (for example, Mahler's symphonies), as well as entire opera or ballet scenes (see Tchaikovsky's The Nutcracker, Prokofiev's The Love for Three Oranges) can be arranged in the form of a rondo. Very often, the rondo form is used in the plays of French harpsichordists (Dackin, "Cuckoo", Rameau, Tambourine, "Chicken", Couperin, "Little Windmills", "Sister Monica" and many other pieces).

Variations (from the Latin "change, variety") is a musical form that consists of a theme and its altered repetitions.

And A1A2A3A4 ...

Variations

The theme can be composed by the composer himself, borrowed from folk music or from the work of another composer.1 It is written in any simple form: in the form of a period, two-part, three-part. The theme is repeated with various changes in mode, tonality, rhythm, timbre, etc. In each variation, from one to several elements of musical speech can change (depending on the era and style of the composer).

The type of variation depends on how and how much the theme is changed. Variety of variations:

1. Variations on the unchanged bass (bassoostinato) or ancient variations were known as early as the 16th century in Europe. The then fashionable passacaglia and chaconne dances were written in a form based on the constant repetition of the theme in the bass, while only the upper voices varied (see: G. Purcell, Dido's lament from the opera Dido and Aeneas). The technique of basso ostinato did not remain the property of only ancient music - in the 20th century, due to a surge of interest in early music, this technique found a new life. Interesting examples of the use of basso ostinato can be found, for example, in Drauhgtmans Contract by Michael Nyman (the bass theme is led by the organ against the background of the “trembling” of the strings, at the point of the “golden section” the harpsichord is connected to these instruments, creating a cold, eerie sound with its metallic timbre).

2. Variations on an unchanging melody (sopranoostinato) are the closest to folk music. The melody is repeated without change, and the accompaniment varies. This type of variation was introduced into Russian classical music by M.I. Glinka, which is why they are sometimes called "Glinka" (see: "Ruslan and Lyudmila": Song of Bayan, Persian Choir; Ravel, "Bolero"; Shostakovich, episode of the invasion from Symphony No. 7.).

In Western European classical music of the 18th and first half of the 19th, strict (ornamental) 2 variations developed, created by the Viennese classics (J. Haydn, W. Mozart, L. Beethoven).

Rules of strict variations: 1. Preservation of mode, meter, general contours of the theme and functional basis; 2. Change (ornamentation, complication) of accompaniment; 3. One of the middle variations (usually the 3rd) is written in the minor or major of the same name (see: Mozart, Sonata No. 11, 1 hour; Beethoven, Sonata No. 2, 2 hours, Sonata No. 8, 2 hours, etc.).

The techniques that composers used in variations are associated with the art of improvisation popular in the 17th-18th centuries. Each virtuoso performer, performing at a concert, was obliged to fantasize on a theme proposed by the public (the melody of a popular song or an opera aria).3 Traditions of infinitely varied variations of the original theme still exist in jazz music.

4. Free or romantic variations appeared in the second half of the 19th century. Here, each variation is practically an independent piece and its connection with the theme was very weak. Vivid examples of such variations in a wide variety are presented in the works of R. Schumann: these are the piano cycles "Carnival", "Butterflies", "Symphonic Etudes" and other works. Many variations on borrowed themes were left by the brilliant virtuoso pianist F. Liszt (transcriptions on Schubert's songs, on the themes of Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, themes from Italian operas and on their own topics).

1 In the era early renaissance(XIV-XVI centuries) borrowing someone else's theme was not considered an infringement on copyright - there were special genres that determined the degree of borrowing. A parody was an essay on someone else's topic, and a paraphrase was an essay on one's own topic. A composition on someone else's or one's own theme is common in composer practice to the present day and reveals the degree of mastery in processing the original musical thought.

2 Ornament - pattern, decoration. Ornamental variations implied complication, “carving” of the texture.

3Little Mozart, touring with his father in Europe, surprised the public free improvisation on any given topic. In the 19th century F. Listi N. Paganini stunned listeners with virtuoso improvisations.

composition is determined by consideration of its design (scheme, template or structure) and development over time. The musical form (especially in ancient and cult music) is practically inseparable from the genre (sequent, madrigal, responsory, stichera, mugham, etc.). "Hip-hop, gospel, heavy metal, country and reggae are just as 'forms' as are minuets, fugues, sonatas and rondos." Nevertheless, the concept of genre is commonly used to describe contemporary music. Classical pieces of music are usually classified according to their form. The concept of musical form is inextricably linked with the embodiment of musical content - development (holistic organization of melodic motifs, mode and harmony, meter, polyphonic technique, timbres, and other elements of music).

Most forms of classical music took shape by the middle of the 19th century. New forms that emerged between the 1890s and 1950s include concrete music and minimalism. In musicological studies of the 20th century, a number of new compositional patterns were revealed, which were called "parametric forms". Parametric forms are associated with the technique of constructing a composition at the level of different means (components) of the musical fabric - rhythm, dynamics, harmony, strokes, texture, etc. These forms, in the absence of a melodic-thematic factor or a significant weakening of its formative role, act on foreground modern compositional process.