Articulatory characteristics of speech sounds. speech apparatus
Articulatory phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics studies the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation (speech apparatus) and the mechanisms of speech production. Articulatory characteristic allows you to consider the sound from the position of the speaker. Sound, from the point of view of articulation, is a certain sound unity, which consists of an attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion). An attack of articulation consists in the fact that the organs of speech move from a calm state to a position necessary for pronouncing a given sound. Exposure is the preservation of the position necessary to pronounce a sound. The indentation of articulation consists in the translation of the organs of speech into a calm state. Articulatory characteristics are based on the work of the pronunciation organs, primarily the active organs of speech (tongue, lips).
Speech apparatus, i.e. a set of organs of speech, which include: lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm should be understood conditionally.
The entire speech apparatus of linguistics, i.e. From the point of view of the formation of speech sounds, speech can be divided into three parts:
Anything below the throat
Anything above the throat
The space in which articulation can take place from the vocal cords to the lips is called the vocal tract. Knowledge of articulation makes it possible to classify the sounds of the Russian language.
Articulatory differences are due to the division of the sounds of the Russian language into vowels and consonants. When vowels are formed, a weak air stream passes freely, without encountering obstacles. When consonants are formed, a stronger air stream encounters obstacles in its path.
Articulatory phonetics studies the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation (speech apparatus) and the mechanisms of speech production. The articulatory characteristic allows you to consider the sound from the position of the speaker. Sound (from the point of view of articulation) is a certain sound unity, which consists of an attack (excursion) and an indentation (recursion). Articulatory characteristics are based on the work of the pronunciation organs, primarily active organs.
The term "speech apparatus", i.e. the totality of speech organs, which include lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm, should be understood conditionally. Therefore, the entire speech apparatus linguistically (i.e., in terms of the formation of sounds in speech) can be divided into three parts:
1. everything below the larynx (respiratory apparatus necessary for the formation of speech sounds);
2. larynx (airflow transformation);
3. everything above the larynx (in which articulation is carried out).
The space in which articulation can take place from the vocal cords to the lips is called the vocal tract.
The value of articulation makes it possible to classify the sounds of the Russian language. Articulatory differences are due to the division of the sounds of the Russian language into vowels and consonants. When vowels are formed, a weak air stream passes freely, without encountering obstacles. In the formation of consonants, a stronger air stream meets obstacles.
In russian language vowels classified according to 3 criteria:
1. by row- determined by the movement of the tongue horizontally:
vowels front row - and, uh
vowels middle row - s, a
2.uplift- vertical movement of the tongue:
· lower lifting - A
· middle lifting - uh oh
· top lifting - and, s, y
3. by the presence or absence of labialization, those. by stretching or rounding the lips:
· labialized – OU
· non-labialized – other
Consonants sounds are characterized by 4 main features:
[r] [l] [m] [n] [j]
[p, ] [l, ] [m, ] [n, ]
· noisy
- voiced [b] [c] [d] [e] [h] [g] [d]
[b, ] [c, ] [g, ] [e, ] [h, ]
- deaf [n] [t] [k] [s] [x] [c] [h]
[p, ] [t, ] [k, ] [s, ]
2. at the place of education:
Consonants:
· labial
Ø labial [b] [n] [m]
[b, ] [n, ] [m, ]
Ø labiodental [c] [f]
[v, ] [f, ]
· lingual
Ø anterior lingual:
dental [d] [t] [s] [s] [l] [n] [c]
[d, ] [t, ] [s, ] [s, ] [l, ] [n, ] [c, ]
Palatal [w] [w] [r] [h]
[w, ] [w, ] [p, ] [h, ]
Ø Middle language [j]
Ø rear lingual [g] [k] [x]
[r, ] [k, ] [x, ]
3. according to the method of education - due to the nature of the obstacle that occurs in the path of the air stream (complete closure of the speech organs or gap)
· stop (explosive) [b] [p] [d] [t] [g] [k]
[b, ] [p, ] [d, ] [t, ] [g, ] [k, ]
In the formation of stop consonants, the pronunciation organs are first completely closed, and then the air stream sharply opens them.
· affricates [c] [h]
Consonant sounds, which are formed by closing the organs of speech, between which there is a gap and the air, passing through this gap, seems to explode.
· trembling (vibrants)[R]
They are formed with the help of a trembling tip of the tongue, which vibrates when the air jet exits.
· closure-through
Ø side [l]
Ø nasal [m] [n]
[m, ] [n, ]
They are formed as a result of the fact that the air stream finds another way out due to the closure of the organs.
· slotted (fricative) [f] [v] [s] [s] [g] [w] [x] [j]
[f, ] [v, ] [z, ] [s, ] [g, ] [w, ] [x, ]
When fricative consonants are formed, the active organ approaches the passive one, forming a gap through which the air stream passes, the gap is formed as a result of friction.
4. in relation to palatalization
One of the characteristic features of Russian consonants is a sign of hardness / softness. When pronouncing soft consonants, in addition to the main articulation, an additional articulation of palatalization (j-th pal.) is used. Hard consonants are characterized by a special articulation of hardness (velarization).
Consonants form pairs of hardness/softness.
[b] [c] [g] [e] [h] [k] [l] [m] [n] [p] [r] [s] [t] [x]
[b, ] [c, ] [g, ] [d, ] [h, ] [k, ] [l, ] [m, ] [n, ] [n, ] [p, ] [s, ] [t, ] [x, ]
Unpaired soft: [j] [h, ] [w, ]
Unpaired solids: [w] [w] [c]
1. Introduction
2. Articulatory characteristics of vowel sounds in Russian
3. Articulatory characteristics of vowels in English
4. Sonograms and oscillograms of English and Russian vowels
6. List of used literature
Introduction
Phonetics is the science of the sound side of human speech. This is one of the main sections of linguistics (linguistics). The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound). The special position of phonetics as a science is determined by the fact that it, the only one of all linguistic sciences, studies such units of language, the nature of which is material. The material carrier of sounding speech is air vibrations specially formed by the speaker. The listener receives information about the meaning of the message transmitted by the speaker primarily on the basis of his auditory perception.
The sound of speech is the smallest, indivisible unit of the speech flow, perceiving with the ear. This is a real sound uttered by a specific person at a specific moment in time. The variety of speech sounds is endless. Each speaker pronounces sounds in his own way, it is not without reason that you can recognize a person by hearing his speech. On the other hand, we are able to evaluate certain speech sounds as identical, in terms of belonging to one or another sound type. This sound type, the standard of the sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of the speakers, is called the sound of the language. It combines similar, close speech sounds and is an abstract unit.
In this work, I want to consider the formation of vowels in English and Russian. And also to make their comparative analysis.
All speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. They differ articulatory and acoustically.
1. When forming vowels, the air stream passes through the mouth freely, without encountering any obstacles. When consonants are formed, the air stream overcomes an obstacle in the oral cavity. This main articulatory difference between vowels and consonants is also responsible for their other differences.
2. Vowels - tone sounds, they are formed as a result of the vibration of the vocal cords at the moment the air stream passes through the larynx. These vibrations are periodic, they create a tone, a musical sound. Consonants are characterized by the presence of noise. Noise is a non-periodic sound, it occurs as a result of overcoming various obstacles by an air stream.
3. Vowels are characterized by a weak stream of air, and to overcome the barrier when pronouncing consonants, a stronger air stream is needed.
4. During the formation of vowels, muscular tension spreads almost equally throughout the entire oral cavity, and during the formation of consonants, muscular tension is concentrated in the place where the barrier arises.
5. V.A. Bogoroditsky called vowels mouth openers, consonants mouth openers: the louder we want to pronounce the vowel, the wider we should open our mouth, the louder we want to pronounce the consonant, the closer we should bring the organs of speech together.
6. M.V. Panov gave another difference between vowels and consonants: vowels can be shouted, but it is impossible to shout with consonants alone.
Articulation classification of vowel sounds in Russian.
Vowels are pure tonal sounds. Having arisen in the larynx as a result of vibrations of the vocal cords, the musical tone, the voice acquires a special timbre in the supraglottic cavities. The mouth and pharynx are the resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the volume and shape of the resonating cavities, which can change as a result of the movement of the lips, tongue, and mandible. Each vowel is pronounced with a special position of the organs of speech peculiar only to this sound.
The classification of vowel sounds is based on three features:
involvement of the lips
the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically relative to the palate
The degree of advancement of the tongue forward or relegation back along the larynx
According to the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded (labialized) and non-rounded (non-labialized) (from the Latin labium - lip () abialized and non-rounded () long (about this sound, the position of the ragons can change as a result of the movement of the lip timbre). When rounded vowels are formed, the lips approach, round and protrude forward, reducing the outlet and lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of roundedness can be different: lesser y [o], greater y [y] Vowels [a], [e], [and], [s] - unrounded.
According to the degree of rise in relation to the palate, vowels of the upper rise are distinguished: [i], [s], [y]; average rise [e], [o]; lower [a]. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually slightly moves away from the upper jaw, creating a narrow mouth opening. Therefore, high vowels are also called narrow. When articulating low vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening, which is why such vowels are also called wide.
According to the degree of advancement of the language forward or its retraction backwards, front vowels are distinguished horizontally: [i], [e]; middle row: [s], [a] and back row: [y], [o]. When articulating front and back vowels, the tongue is concentrated in the front or back of the mouth, respectively. In this case, the shape of the tongue is different: when forming front vowels, the front part of the tongue rises towards the front of the palate, and when forming back vowels, the back of the tongue rises towards the back of the palate. When vowels are formed, the middle row of the tongue either concentrates in the middle part of the oral cavity and rises with the middle part to the middle part of the palate, as sometimes happens when pronouncing [s] (a number of such vowels are otherwise called central), or lies flat, as when pronouncing [a] (a number of such vowels are otherwise called mixed).
The simplest table of Russian vowels is as follows:
Another scheme is represented by the vowel triangle:
More accurately represents the articulatory space of the trapezoid vowels. It reflects the structural features of the oral cavity and the possibilities of tongue movements: in the lower and back parts of the mouth they are more limited than in the upper and front.
But the division into three rows and three rises does not reflect the full richness of vowel sounds. So, besides [and], there is also a sound pronounced with a slightly greater openness of the mouth and a slightly lower rise of the tongue. This sound is called "[and] open"; in a more accurate transcription it is "[and] prone to [e]".
Tones of sounds can be considered as special sounds. Then the table should be more detailed. M.V. Panov proposed a table with five rows and five rises (although, of course, not all vowels of the Russian language are shown in it):
The vowel [e] is one of the most frequent sounds of the literary language. It is pronounced in some unstressed syllables, for example in words p[e]rekhod. Under stress, it is extremely rare, for example, in the affirmative Yes, uttered with a touch of regret [de?] ("?" Means a sharp closure of the vocal cords, a blow to the glottis). Isolated [e] can be pronounced if you form a continuous series of transitional sounds from [s] to [a] and stop in the middle.
The vowels [a], [e], [o], [y] are advanced forward and up compared to [a], [e], [o], [y]. They are pronounced between soft consonants: five[p΄ät΄], aunt[t΄ö t΄] I, tulle[t΄ul΄].
Shift up, closeness of front vowels [i], [e] between soft consonants can be denoted in transcription differently: [i], [e], or [i], [e], or [i], [e]. The "lid" over a vowel is also used to indicate the tension of a vowel.
The closed vowel [e] in the first pre-stressed syllable after a soft consonant is usually indicated by the sign [e]: in [e] sleep, b[e] ha, r[e] dy. This pronunciation is typical for ekanya - the older literary norm, in contrast to the ikanya that dominates the modern literary language: in and] c on, b [i] ha, r [i] dy.
The vowel [e] is pronounced under stress after hard consonants: ant [e] nna, m [e] r, sh [e] st.
Vowels [and], [s], [a] are only in an unstressed position: [and] hide, d[s] shi, in [a] yes. For some speakers, instead of [ a ] sounds [l] - an unrounded vowel, according to the position of the language, the middle one between [ a ] and [ o ]. Such a pronunciation, as a rule, traces of the former okanya - the distinction between unstressed [ a ] and [ o ].
Of course, not all vowels are represented in these tables. A more detailed examination reveals more subtle positional dependences of sounds. For example, in the words ladies And gave usually transcribe the same vowel [a]. But in reality, different sounds are pronounced here: [ a ] of the middle row in the word ladies and [a] mid-back row in a word gave. The sound [l] causes the previous vowel to shift back. In words Houses And gave usually transcribe the same pre-stressed vowel [a]. But with a more accurate transcription, one should distinguish between [lady] and [dlla]: the consonant sound [l] here affects the pre-stressed vowel in the same way as the stressed one.
§ 6. Sounds are pronounced with the help of the organs of speech. The main organs of speech are the lips (upper and lower); teeth (upper and lower); tongue (distinguish: front, middle and back parts of the tongue); alveoli (tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth); solid sky; soft sky; nasal cavity; nasopharynx; epiglottis; laryngeal cavity; vocal cords, between which is the glottis; trachea, bronchi; lungs; diaphragm.
§ 7. The articulatory characteristic is different for vowels and consonants. The characteristic of vowel sounds includes differences in the degree of tongue elevation (depending on the vertical movement of the tongue), along the row (depending on the horizontal movement of the tongue), and the presence or absence of labialization (rounding). The articulatory characteristic of consonant sounds includes differences in the participation of noise and voice, in the place and method of noise formation, in the presence or absence of palatalization (mitigation).
§ 8. The articulatory characteristics of vowels are presented in Table. 1. The table includes
Table 1
Articulatory characteristics of vowels
| Characteristics of vowel sounds | Vowel sounds | ||||||
| [And] | [s] | [y] | [e] | [O] | [A] | ||
| According to the degree of elevation of the tongue | top lift | + | + | + | |||
| medium lift | + | + | |||||
| bottom lift | + | ||||||
| In a row, or in a place where the tongue is raised | front row | + | + | ||||
| middle row | + | + | |||||
| back row | + | + | |||||
| By the presence or absence of labialization | round | + | + | ||||
| unlabialized | + | + | + | + | |||
there are stressed vowels in the position of the absolute beginning of the word not before a soft consonant (for example, [a], [o], [y], [i], [s], [e] - the names of letters; [a] d, [o] kna, [y] goal, [and] gly, [s] kat (pronounce the sound [s] instead of o, a) (special), [e] that (spelling it).
§ 9. According to the degree of elevation of the tongue, i.e., depending on the movement of the tongue vertically in relation to the palate, vowels of the upper, middle and lower rise are distinguished (see Fig. 1).
High vowels include [and], [s], [y]. When upper vowels are formed, the middle (y [and], [s]) and the back of the back of the tongue (y [y]) rise high to the palate: to the hard - when pronouncing [and], to the back of the hard and to the front of the soft palate - when pronouncing [s] and to the soft palate - when pronouncing [y].
Middle vowels include [e] and [o]. When vowels of the middle rise are formed, the middle (y [e]) and the back of the back of the tongue (y [o]) first rise high to the palate, and then fall lower.
[a] belongs to low vowels. When the sound [a] is formed, the tongue almost does not rise to the palate and lies flat.
§ 10. According to the row, or according to the place where the tongue is raised, i.e., depending on the horizontal movement of the tongue, the vowels of the front, middle and back rows are distinguished (see Fig. 2).
Front vowels include [i] and [e]. When forming front vowels, the middle part of the back of the tongue moves forward, the tip of the tongue drops and rests on the lower teeth (y [i]) or is located at the lower teeth (y [e]).
Back vowels include [o] and [y]. When forming back vowels, the tongue moves back, the tip of the tongue touches or does not touch the lower teeth (y [o]) or drops (y [y]).
The middle vowels include [s]. In the formation of a middle vowel, which occupies an intermediate position between the front and back vowels, the tongue is pushed back to a lesser extent than in the formation of back vowels, the back of the tongue is highly raised.
The vowel [a] is not localized in relation to the row: when the sound [a] is formed, the tongue almost does not articulate towards the palate.
§ 11. According to the presence or absence of labialization, that is, depending on the participation or non-participation of the lips in the formation of vowels, vowels are distinguished between labialized and non-labialized. In the formation of labialized vowels, the lips move forward, round and form a narrow air outlet. The vowels [o] and [y] are labialized. When forming the vowel [o], the lips protrude to a lesser extent than when forming the vowel [y]. Lips do not take an active part in the formation of non-labialized vowels. Non-labialized ones include [u], [s], [e], and [a].
§ 12. The articulatory characteristics of consonants are presented in Table. 2. The table includes consonant sounds that appear in positions before vowels, for example [p] ar, [p '] el, [b] ar, [b '] el, [f] ara, [f '] etr, [v] ar, [v '] id, [t] ak, [t '] ik, [d] orog, [d '] elo, [s] alo, [s '] el, [s] al, [s '] mirror, [ts] aplya, [h ].
§ 13. Depending on the degree of participation in the formation of consonant voices and noise, noisy consonants (voiced and voiced) and sonorants are distinguished.
If the vocal cords are close, tense and fluctuate, then a voice arises. If the vocal cords are not close, not tense and do not fluctuate, then the voice does not arise. When the air stream passes through the obstacles, friction occurs, resulting in noise. The ratio of voice and noise depends on the strength of the air stream, on the nature of the barrier, and on the strength of the muscular tension of the organs of speech. The weaker the air jet, the stronger the voice and the weak noise, and vice versa, the stronger the air jet, the stronger the voice and the weaker the noise. The ratio of voice and noise is different for different consonants.
When pronouncing noisy ones, a certain kind of barriers are formed in the oral cavity, through which a strong air stream passes, forming a noise that is clearly audible along with the voice. Noisy consonants include [p], [p’], [b], [b’], [f], [f’], [c], [c’], [t], [t’], [d], [d’], [s], [s’], [h], [h’], [c], [h], [w], [g], [〙’], [〇’], [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’].
When pronouncing sonorants in the oral cavity, barriers also arise, but a weak air stream passing through this barrier forms only a slight noise; air passes freely through the opening in the nasal or oral cavity. Sonorants are pronounced with the help of a voice with the addition of a slight noise. Sonorants include consonants [j], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [p], [p '].
§ 14. Depending on the degree of participation of the vocal cords and on the strength of the muscular tension of the active (or also passive) organ of speech (see § 15), noisy voiceless and voiced are distinguished. The voice does not participate in the formation of deaf noisy voices: the vocal cords are not close, not tense, do not fluctuate. In the formation of deaf noisy, moreover, more energetic work of the active (or also passive) organ of speech takes place than in the formation of voiced noisy ones. Deaf noisy consonants include [p], [p '], [f], [f '], [t], [t '], [s], [s '], [c], [h], [w], [〙 '], [k], [k '], [x], [x ']. Noisy voiced consonants are formed with the help of noise with the addition of a voice: the vocal cords are close, tense and fluctuate. Noisy voiced ones include [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [d], [d '], [h], [h '], [g], [〇 '], [g], [g '].
Note. In modern Russian, a double pronunciation of the sound is allowed in place of the letter combinations zhzh, zzh inside the root morph: [〇'], for example, vi[〇']at, e[〇']y, and [〇], for example, vi[〇]at, e[〇]y (but only dro[〇']i, vo[〇']i). The pronunciation [〇'] corresponds to the old Moscow pronunciation norms (see § 23). It is also possible to pronounce the sound twice in place of the letter combination zhd in the word rain and in the formations from it rainy, rainy. In accordance with the old Moscow pronunciation norms, in place of the combination of letters zhd, [〇'] is pronounced and at the end of the word [〙'], for example, to [〇'˙a], to [〇'˙y] ..., to [〙 '], to [〇 ']living, with admissible to [zh'(zh)]living, to [〇']eva. In accordance with modern standards, in place of the letter combination zhd, it is possible to pronounce [zhd '], [zhd], at the end of the word [pcs '], for example, until [waiting '] I, before [waiting '] yu .., before [pcs '], raining [waiting] rainy, before [waiting '] eva.
Consonants that differ only in deafness - sonority and form pairs [p] - [b], [p '] - [b '], [f] - [c], [f '] - [c '], [t] - [d], [t '] - [d '], [s] - [s], [s '] - [s '], [w] - [g], [〙 '] - [〇 '], [k] - [g], [k '] - [g '], are called paired deafness - voicedness, and consonants [c], [h], [x], [x '], as well as sonorants [p], [p '], [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [j] - unpaired in deafness - voicedness (see § 126).
Note. In modern Russian, in accordance with old Moscow norms, in place of the letter u, as well as the letter combinations sch, zch, a long soft [〙 '] is pronounced; [〙']i, bru[〙']atka, izvo[〙']ik. In the traditional Leningrad pronunciation (see § 23), instead of [〙 '], [sh'h] is pronounced: [sh'h] and, bru [sh'h] atka, out [sh'h] ik.
table 2
Articulatory characteristics of consonants
| Sound | Participation of noise and voice | Noise generation method | Location of noise | Presence or absence of palatalization | |||||||||||||||
| noisy | sonorny | deaf | voiced | occlusive | affricate | slotted | sluice-through | trembling | labial | lingual | |||||||||
| labial | labiodental | anterior lingual | middle language | posterior lingual | |||||||||||||||
| side | nasal | ||||||||||||||||||
| dental | palatine-tooth | midpalatal | guttural | solid | soft | ||||||||||||||
| [P] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [P'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [b] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [b '] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [f] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [f'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [V] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [V'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [T] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [T'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [e] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [d'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [With] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [With'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [h] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [h '] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [c] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [h] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [w] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [and] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [〙’] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [〇’] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [To] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [To'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [G] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [G'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [X] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [X'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [j] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [m] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [m'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [n| | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [n'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [R] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [R'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [l] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [l'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
To characterize consonants at the place of noise formation, it is enough to note the participation of teeth, tongue, lips and palate.
According to the place of noise formation, all consonants differ depending on the articulation of the active and passive organ of speech. The active organs are the tongue in the lower lip, and the passive organs are the upper lip, teeth and palate.
According to the active organ, all consonants are divided into labial and lingual. The labial consonants include [n], [n '], [b], [b '], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [m], [m ']; lingual consonants include [t], [t’], [d], [d’], [s], [s’], [h], [h’], [c], [h], [w], [g], [〙’], [〇’], [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’], [j], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [p], [p’]. Lingual are subdivided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual (see Fig. 3).
| Rice. 3. [t], [d] (–––––) [k], [g] (– – – – –); [j] (–.–.–.–). | ||
The anterior part of the tongue is involved in the formation of anterior lingual consonants. The front-lingual ones include [t], [t’], [d], [d’], [s], [s’], [h], [h’], [c], [h], [w], [g], [〙’], [〇’], [n], [n’], [p], [p’], [l], [l’]. The middle part of the back of the tongue is involved in the formation of middle language consonants. [j] belongs to the middle language. The back part of the back of the tongue takes part in the formation of the posterior lingual. Back-lingual ones include [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '].
According to the passive organ, towards which the active organ articulates, the labial consonants are divided into labial and labial consonants (see Fig. 4, 5).
When teeth are formed, the front of the tongue articulates towards the upper teeth, forming an air barrier at the upper incisors and alveoli. Dental include [t], [t’], [d], [d’], [c], [s], [s’], [s], [s’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’]. With the formation of palatine teeth, the tip of the tongue is more bent upwards and backwards, forming a barrier to air in the dental part of the hard palate. The palatine teeth include [h], [w], [g], [〙 '], [〇 '], [p], [p '].
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| Rice. 8. [j] | ||||
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| Rice. 9. [k], [g] | Rice. 10. [x] | |||
The medial consonant [j] is mid-palatal in its passive organ; when it is formed, the back of the back of the tongue articulates towards the middle part of the palate (see Fig. 8).
The posterior lingual [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '] are posterior palatine according to the passive organ; when they are formed, the back of the back of the tongue articulates towards the soft palate (see Fig. 9, 10).
§ 16. According to the method of noise formation, that is, depending on the nature of the barrier that forms between the active and passive organs, noisy consonants are divided into stop, affricate and fricative (or fricative). When occlusive consonants are formed, the active organ, articulating towards the passive, forms a complete closure, or a complete shutter; the exhaled air forcefully breaks this shutter, resulting in noise (see Fig. 4, 9). Stops include [n], [n '], [b], [b '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [k], [k '], [g], [g ']. When gap consonants are formed, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a gap; as a result of the friction of the exhaled air against the walls of the gap, noise is generated (see Fig. 5, 7, 10). Noisy slots include [f], [f’], [c], [c’], [s], [s’], [h], [h’], [w], [g], [〙’], [〇’], [x], [x’]. Among fricative noisy consonants, single-focal and two-focal consonants stand out. In monofocal consonants, noise is formed in only one place. So, when pronouncing [s] noise is formed in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth, when pronouncing [f] - in the gap between the lower lip and upper teeth, and when pronouncing [x] - in the gap between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. Single-focus slits include [s], [s '], [s], [s '], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [x], [x ']. In bifocal consonants, noise is formed simultaneously in two places. So, when pronouncing [w], the noise is formed simultaneously in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the beginning of the hard palate and in the gap between the back of the back of the tongue and the soft palate, and when pronouncing [〙 '] - simultaneously in the gap between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate, as well as the tip of the tongue and upper teeth. The slit two-focal ones include [w], [g], [〙’], [〇’].
Affricates occupy an intermediate position between stop and fricative. During the formation of affricates, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a complete closure, as in the formation of stops, however, the opening does not occur by explosion, but by the transition of closure into a gap. Affricates include [c], [h]. The sound [ts] is a single-focal affricate, during the pronunciation of which noise is formed in the gap between the front of the back of the tongue and the upper teeth (or alveoli). The sound [h] is a two-focal affricate, during the pronunciation of which noise is formed simultaneously in two places: in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the beginning of the hard palate (as when pronouncing [sh]) and in the gap between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate (as when pronouncing [〙 ']).
Sonorant consonants, depending on the method of formation, are divided into fricative, occlusive and tremulous.
The consonant [j] belongs to the fricative sonorants (see above the description of the fricative noisy ones and Fig. 8). When pronouncing [j], a gap is formed between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate, through which a weak air stream passes. As a result of the friction of the air jet against the walls of the slot, a voice with a slight noise arises.
When the occlusal passages are formed in the oral cavity, a complete closure is formed, as in the formation of the stoppers, but there is a passage for air through the mouth or through the nose. The occlusive passages are divided into oral, or lateral ([l], [l ']), and nasal ([m], [m '], [n], [n ']). See fig. 11, 12, 13.
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| Rice. 13. [n] | ||
When pronouncing [l], the tip of the tongue closes with the upper teeth (as in the formation of interlocks), but the sides of the tongue are lowered and form gaps through which a weak air stream passes freely. When pronouncing [m], the lips close (as in the formation of labial occlusives, see § 15), but the soft palate is lowered, as a result of which a weak air stream passes freely through the nasal cavity. When pronouncing [n], the front of the tongue rests against the beginning of the hard palate (near the upper teeth), but the soft palate is lowered, as a result of which a weak air stream freely passes through the nasal cavity.
With the formation of trembling, the tip of the tongue, slightly bent and raised to the alveoli, vibrates under the influence of the air jet, as a result of which it sometimes closes with the alveoli, then opens (see Fig. 14). The edges of the tongue are pressed against the lateral teeth, and a weak air stream passes in the middle. Trembling consonants include [p], [p '].
In most consonants, the raising of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate is an additional articulation that occurs simultaneously with the main articulation of the consonant, and only in [j] this articulation is the main one (see Fig. 8). Soft consonants include [p '], [b '], [t '], [d '], [f '], [c '], [s '], [h '], [h], [〙 '], [〇 '], [k '], [g '], [x '], [j], [m '], [n '], [p '], [l ']. Hard consonants are characterized by the absence of additional articulation. These include [n], [b], [f], [c], [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [w], [g], [k], [g], [x], [m], [n], [p], [l]. Consonants [p], [n’], [b], [b’], [f], [f’], [c], [c’], [t], [t’], [d], [d’], [s], [s’], [h], [h’], [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [p], [p’], [l], [l’], differing only in hardness - softness and forming such pairs, like [p] - [n ’], [b] - [b ’], etc., are called paired in hardness - softness, and consonants [h], [w], [g], [〙 ’], [〇 ’], [j], [c], which do not form similar pairs, are called unpaired in hardness - softness (see § 126).
The characteristic of consonants includes five main features.
1. Place of education consonant depends on which active organ makes
the main work and with which passive organ it closes or approaches.
If the active organ is the lower lip, then the consonants can be labial: [P],
[p '], [b], [b '], [m], [m '] (passive organ - upper lip) and labio-dental: [c], [c '], [f], [f ']
(passive organ - upper teeth).
If the active organ is language, then the characteristic of the consonant depends on which
part of the tongue - the anterior, middle or posterior - participate in the creation of a barrier and with which passive faceted - teeth, anterior, middle or posterior part of the palate - the tongue approaches or closes.
Front lingual consonants there are dental when the front
goes to the teeth: [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [s], [s '], [s], [s '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [c], and
anterior palatine when it is directed to the front of the sky: [p], [p '], [w], [g], [h '].
Anterior palatal consonants are also called alveolar, because. in these consonants, the place of greatest approximation of the anterior part of the back of the tongue to the anterior part of the palate is the alveoli, in some consonants it is also adjacent to the alveoli
area of the hard palate.
Middle-lingual at the same time always midpalatal: .
back lingual consonants (active organ - back of the back of the tongue):
- posterior palatine(tongue directed towards the back of the palate): [k], [g], [x], [γ], [ng];
– midpalatal: [k '], [g '], [x '], [γ '].
2. Method of consonant formation- this is a characteristic of an obstacle in the oral cavity on the path of an air stream and a way to overcome it. This obstacle can be of three kinds: a narrow gap between the contiguous speech organs, their complete closure, and the active organ trembling in the flow of speech.
occlusive consonants include the moment of complete cessation of the flow of air
jets through the oral cavity. Depending on the nature of overcoming the bow, consonants are divided into:
1. Clutch-explosive- noise is formed as a result of a strong rupture of the bow: [b],
[b '], [p], [n '], [d], [d '], [t], [t '], [g], [g '], [k], [k '].
2. Link-through- when they are formed in the oral cavity, a complete
closure, but the air does not break the bow, but rushes around it.
Smuchno-passage are divided into:
- nasal(air passes through the nasal cavity): [m], [m], [ng] (nasal
back-lingual, pronounced in place [n] before [k], [g]: rank, slang, dotted line, congress.
– side: [l], [l '].
3. Closing-slotted(affricates) - the opening of the bow for these sounds does not occur
instantly, by an explosion, but by going into the gap: [c] - [d ^ z], [c '] - [d '^ z '], [h] - [d ^ w], [h '] - [d ^ w '].
slotted(fricative, from lat. - fricatio - friction). When gaps are formed
consonants, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a gap. Air rubs against the walls of the slot and noise is generated. The slotted sounds include: [v], [v’], [f], [f’], [s], [s’], [h], [h’], [w], [w’:], [g], [g’:], [x], [x’], [γ], [γ’], .
Trembling are formed as a result of vibrations (vibrations) of the tip of the tongue under
by the action of an air stream, as a result of which the tip of the tongue closes and opens with the alveoli: [p], [p '].
3. According to the noise level(the degree of its intensity) consonants are divided into sonorants: [m],
[m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [r], [r '], and noisy [n], [n '], [b], [b '], [f], [f '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [s],
[s’], [s], [s’], [c], [h’], [w], [g], [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’] noise intensity in noisy
consonants are much higher than sonorants. This is explained by differences in the tension of the organs of speech, in the width of the passage for the air stream and in its strength when pronouncing sonorous and noisy consonants. Noisy consonants are formed with greater muscle tension than in sonorants in the place of the oral cavity where the air stream is obstructed. The width of the passage for the air jet during the articulation of sonorous consonants is greater than during the articulation of noisy consonants. Therefore, the strength of the air stream coming out of the oral cavity during speech is much greater when pronouncing noisy consonants than when pronouncing sonorants.
4. By participation or non-participation of the vote all consonants are divided into voiced and deaf.
Deaf and voiced consonants are determined by the absence or presence of their
pronunciation of voice (tone). The voice results from the fact that the vocal cords
close together and tremble when passing a jet of air. This is how voiced consonants are formed: [p], [l], [m], [n], , [b], [c], [g], [d], [g], [s]. The difference between voiced sonorants and voiced noisy ones is that in voiced sonorants the voice significantly prevails over the noise, while in voiced sonorants the noise prevails over the voice. Without a voice, with the help of noise alone, deaf consonants are formed: [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [c], [h ’], [w]. When they are pronounced, the glottis is opened, and the vocal cords are relaxed.
By deafness / voicedness, consonants form pairs:
12 correlation pairs
[b], [b ’], [c], [c ’], [g], [g ’], [d], [d ’], [g], [g ’:], [h], [h ’]
[n], [n’], [f], [f’], [k], [k’], [t], [t’], [w], [w’:], [s], [s’]
9 non-correlative voiced sounds(sonor)
[l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [p], [p’], [j]
[–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–]
4 non-correlative voiceless sounds(noisy)
[–], [–], [–], [–]
[x], [x’], [c], [h]
In a number of recent textbooks on the modern Russian language, in particular in
textbook "Russian language" in 2 parts (authors Kasatkin L.L., Lvov M.R., Terekhova T.G. and others) / ed. L.Yu. Maksimova, "Modern Russian Language" (author Dibrova, Kasatkin L.L.) states that all consonants have pairs of voicedness - deafness:
[c] - [d ^ z]: bridgehead, special task, end of the year;
[h ’] - [d’ ^ w ’]: to lie down, there was a daughter, head base;
[x] - [γ]: accountant, two years old, there were two of them.
Sonorant sounds also have deafness pairs: [l] - [l], [m] - [m], [n] - [n], [r] - [r],
[j]–[j].
Deaf sonorants can appear at the end of a word after a deaf consonant: met[r],
whih [r '], meaning [l], dog [n '].
5. By the presence or absence of palatalization, i.e. mitigation (from lat. palatum -
sky) consonants are divided into soft and hard.
Soft consonants are characterized by the fact that to the main articulation of consonants
an additional one is added - palatalization - raising the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate and moving the back of the tongue forward. Therefore, soft consonants, except for [j], are palatalized.
In [j], the elevation of the middle part of the tongue to the middle part of the palate is not additional, but
the main articulation, so [j] is a palatal sound.
When solid consonants are formed, the back of the back of the tongue tenses and
rises to the soft palate. Such consonants are called velarized (from Latin velum palāti - palatine curtain).
In the scale of inconsistency [g], [w], [c] are hard consonants; [w ':], [h '], - soft consonants.
The sounds [h], [w], [g] in certain positions have correlative pairs in terms of softness.
[h] has a hard pair before a hard [w]: lu [h ’], but better [h] she. At [c] a soft pair is found before: five [c ’] sya.
A solid sound [w] has a pair - a sound [w ':]: [w ':] ka
Only the voiced [j] cannot have a solid pair, because it is out of correlation.
Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. They have a different nature. They are pronounced and perceived differently, as well as behave differently in speech and play different roles in it.
Vowels- these are sounds, during the pronunciation of which air freely passes through the oral cavity, without encountering obstacles in its path. Pronunciation (articulation) is not focused in one place: the quality of vowels is determined by the shape of the oral cavity, which acts as a resonator. When articulating vowels, the vocal cords in the larynx work. They are close, tense and vibrate. Therefore, when pronouncing vowels, we hear a voice. Vowels can be drawn. They can be screamed at. And if you put your hand to your throat, then the work of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels can be felt, felt with your hand. Vowels are the basis of the syllable, they organize it. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. For example: He- 1 syllable, she- 2 syllables, Guys- 3 syllables, etc. There are words that consist of one vowel sound. For example, unions: and, a and interjections: Oh!, Ah!, Woo! and others.
In a word, vowels can be in stressed and unstressed syllables.
stressed syllable one in which the vowel is pronounced clearly and appears in its basic form.
IN unstressed syllables vowels are modified, pronounced differently. Changing vowels in unstressed syllables is called reduction. There are six stressed vowels in Russian: [a], [o], [y], [s], [i], [e].
There are only 21 consonant letters. Consonant sounds are formed due to the barrier that occurs in the mouth during the passage of the air flow. The role of a barrier can be played by teeth, tongue, lips, depending on the nature of the barrier, consonants are divided into many groups, for example, labial, dental, etc. Also, consonants are divided into hard and soft, deaf and voiced.
Hard consonants are pronounced more roughly, while soft ones sound more elegant and are softened by a nearby vowel or in writing with a soft sign. In transcription, soft sounds are indicated by a nearby apostrophe. For example, in the word HOUSE, the letter "d" sounds hard, and in the word GO - softly.
Deaf consonants are pronounced without the participation of the voice, while in the formation of solid sounds the participation of the voice is necessary. Voiced and deaf sounds, as a rule, form a pair, for example: B-P, V-F, etc.
There are only a few sounds that do not have a deafness-voicedness pair: U, C, Y, R, L, M, N.
1. The formation of vowels is based on the active work of the vocal cords. Consonants are characterized by the active work of the organs of speech in the oral cavity.
2. The voice acts as the basis of the vowel sound, the basis of the consonant sound is noise, as a result of overcoming the barrier in the oral cavity by air.
3. Vowels are formed by a weak pressure of the air stream, consonants are strong, since the air needs to overcome the barrier in the oral cavity.
4. When vowels are formed, all organs of the oral cavity are evenly tense. When a consonant is formed, those organs of speech are strained, in the area of \u200b\u200bwhich a barrier is formed that the air must overcome.
5. When forming vowels, the air jet does not encounter any obstacles on the way; when forming consonants, the air jet must overcome an obstacle on its way in the oral cavity.
6. Vowels can sound with more or less force, which allows them to be stressed. The consonants are always pronounced with the same force.
7. The great power of pronunciation makes it possible for vowels to form a syllable, i.e. vowels are syllabic in Russian. Consonants, due to their low sonority, are not able to form a syllable in Russian.
The vowel system is called vocalism, and the consonant system is called consonantism.
Vowel sounds are classified according to various criteria.
There are six vowels in the Russian literary language: [i], [e], [s], [a], [o], [y].
They are most clearly heard under stress.
The classification of vowel sounds is made according to the work of the lips and tongue.
The sound [and] after a solid consonant or at the junction of words is replaced by the sound [s].
Vowel sounds are characterized by the presence of a musical tone, a voice that is formed due to the rhythmic vibrations of the vocal cords in the larynx.
The difference between vowels is determined by the volume and shape of the resonators, cavities of the pharynx and mouth, which change with different positions of the lips, tongue and lower jaw.
The articulatory classification of vowel sounds is made according to the following criteria:
1) position in relation to stress (stressed vowel, vowel of the first pre-stressed syllable, other unstressed syllables);
2) the method of formation, the position of the tongue along the vertical, the rise (upper, middle, lower);
3) place of formation, horizontal position of the tongue, row (front, middle, back);
4) presence-absence of labialization, roundness (labialized, non-labialized);
5) the quality of the vowel associated with accommodation (tension, closeness or advancement to the front zone of formation at the beginning, at the end, throughout the articulation).
Table of articulatory classification of vowels. stressed vowels
Vowels of the first prestressed syllable
Vowels of other unstressed syllables
