French Renaissance (XVI - XVII centuries). history of france

⁰

The Renaissance was a significant stage in the development of French culture. At this time, bourgeois relations are rapidly developing in the country and monarchical power is being strengthened. The religious ideology of the Middle Ages is gradually pushed into the background by a humanistic worldview. Secular art begins to play an important role in the cultural life of France. The realism of French art, connection with scientific knowledge, appeal to the ideas and images of antiquity bring it closer to Italian. At the same time, the Renaissance in France has a peculiar appearance, in which Renaissance humanism is combined with elements of tragedy, born of the contradictions of the situation in the country.

As a result of the many defeats of France during the Hundred Years' War with England, which lasted from 1337 to 1453, feudal anarchy reigned in the country. The peasantry, crushed by unbearable taxes and the atrocities of the invaders, rose to fight against their oppressors. With particular force, the liberation movement flared up at the moment when the British troops, who had captured the north of France, headed for Orleans. Patriotic sentiments resulted in the performance of the French peasants and knights, led by Joan of Arc, against the English troops. The rebels won several brilliant victories. The movement did not stop even when Joan of Arc was captured and, with the tacit consent of the French king Charles VII, burned by churchmen at the stake.

As a result of the long struggle of the people against foreign invaders, France was liberated. The monarchy used this victory for its own purposes, while the position of the victorious people remained still difficult.

In the second half of the XV century. thanks to the efforts of Louis XI, France became politically unified. The country's economy developed, science and education improved, trade relations were established with other states, and especially with Italy, from which culture penetrated France. In 1470, a printing house was opened in Paris, in which, along with other books, the works of Italian humanists began to be printed.

The art of book miniature is developing, in which mystical and religious images have been replaced by realistic ideas about the surrounding world. At the court of the Duke of Burgundy, the talented artists already mentioned above, the Limburg brothers, work. Famous Dutch masters worked in Burgundy (painters van Eyck brothers, sculptor Sluter), so in this province the influence of the Dutch Renaissance is noticeable in the art of French masters, while in other provinces, for example in Provence, the influence of the Italian Renaissance has increased.

One of the largest representatives of the French Renaissance was the artist Anguerrand Charonton, who worked in Provence, who painted monumental and compositionally complex canvases, in which, despite the religious themes, interest in man and the reality surrounding him was vividly expressed (“Madonna of Mercy”, “Coronation of Mary” , 1453). Although Sharonton's paintings were notable for their decorative effect (refined lines, combined into a bizarre ornament, symmetry of the composition), but an important place in them was occupied by detailed everyday scenes, landscapes, and human figures. On the faces of the saints and Mary, the viewer can read the feelings and thoughts that own them, learn a lot about the character of the characters.

The same interest in the landscape, in the careful transfer of all the details of the composition, distinguishes the altarpieces of another artist from Provence - Nicolas Froment ("The Resurrection of Lazarus", "The Burning Bush", 1476).

The features of the new in French art were especially clearly manifested in the work of the artists of the Loire school, who worked in the central part of France (in the valley of the Loire River). Many representatives of this school lived in the city of Tours, in which in the 15th century. was the residence of the French king. A resident of Tours was one of the most significant painters of this era, Jean Fouquet.

One of the most famous artists of the late XV century. was Jean Clouet the Elder, also known as the Master of Moulin. Before 1475 he worked in Brussels and then moved to Moulins. Around 1498-1499 Jean Clouet the Elder performed his most significant work - a triptych for the Moulin Cathedral, on the central wing of which the scene "Our Lady in Glory" is presented, and on the side - portraits of customers with patron saints.

The central part depicts the Madonna and Child, over whose head angels hold a crown. Probably, Clouet was modeled for the image of Mary by a French girl, fragile and pretty. At the same time, the abstractness of the author's intention, decorative effects (concentric circles around Mary, angels forming a garland along the edges of the canvas) give the work some resemblance to Gothic art.

Of great interest are the beautiful landscapes that Jean Clouet the Elder places in compositions with religious themes. Next to the figures of saints in these works are portrait images of customers. For example, in the canvas "Nativity" (1480), to the right of Mary, you can see chancellor Rolen prayerfully folded his hands.

In the second half of the XV century. Simon Marmion also worked in France, who performed a number of altar compositions and miniatures, among which his most famous work is illustrations for the Great French Chronicles, and Jean Bourdichon, a portrait painter and miniaturist who created wonderful miniatures for the Hours of Anna of Breton.

The largest artist of this time was Jean Perreal, who headed the Lyon school of painting. He was not only an artist, but also a writer, architect, and mathematician. The fame of him went beyond France and spread to England, Germany, Italy. Perreal served with King Charles VIII and Francis I, in Lyon he held the position of an expert in construction. A number of his portrait works have been preserved, including a portrait of Mary Tudor (1514), Louis XII, Charles VIII. One of Perreal's best works is the charming and poetic Girl with a Flower. Also interesting are his paintings of the cathedral in Puy, on which, along with religious and antique images, the artist placed portraits of French humanists, among them the image of Erasmus of Rotterdam stands out.

At the beginning of the XVI century. France was the largest (by area and population) state in Western Europe. By this time, the position of the peasants had been somewhat alleviated, and the first capitalist forms of production had appeared. But the French bourgeoisie has not yet reached the level to take positions of power in the country, as it was in the Italian cities in the XIV-XV centuries.

This era was marked not only by transformations in the economy and politics of France, but also by the wide dissemination of Renaissance humanistic ideas, which were most fully represented in literature, in the writings of Ronsard, Rabelais, Montaigne, Du Bellay. Montaigne, for example, considered art the main means of educating a person.

As in Germany, the development of art was closely linked to the reform movement against the Catholic Church. This movement was attended by the peasants, dissatisfied with their position, as well as the urban lower classes and the bourgeoisie. After a long struggle, it was suppressed, Catholicism retained its position. Although the Reformation had only some influence on art, its ideas penetrated the environment of humanist artists. Many French painters and sculptors were Protestants.

The centers of Renaissance culture were such cities as Paris, Fontainebleau, Tours, Poitiers, Bourges, Lyon. King Francis I played a major role in spreading Renaissance ideas, inviting French artists, poets, and scientists to his court. For several years, Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea del Sarto worked at the royal court. Around the sister of Francis, Margaret of Navarre, who was engaged in literary activities, poets and humanist writers united, promoting new views on art and the world order. In the 1530s in Fontainebleau, the Italian mannerists founded a school of secular painting, which had a significant impact on the development of French fine art.

An important place in the painting of France in the first half of the XVI century. occupied the art of the artists Giovanni Battista Rosso, Niccolò del Abbate and Francesco Primaticcio invited from Italy to paint the royal palace in Fontainebleau. The central place in their frescoes was occupied by mythological, allegorical and historical subjects, which included images of naked female figures, which were not found in the paintings of the French masters of that time. The refined and elegant, although somewhat mannered, art of the Italians had a great influence on many French artists, who gave rise to the direction called the Fontainebleau school.

Of great interest is the portrait art of this period. French portrait painters continued the best traditions of the masters of the 15th century, and above all Jean Fouquet and Jean Clouet the Elder.

Portraits were widespread not only at court, pencil images served as modern photographs in many French families. These drawings were often distinguished by their virtuosity of performance and reliability in the transfer of human character traits.

Pencil portraits were popular in other European countries, for example, in Germany and the Netherlands, but there they played the role of a sketch that preceded the pictorial portrait, and in France such works became an independent genre.

The greatest French portraitist of this era was Jean Clouet the Younger.

Cornel de Lyon, who worked in Lyon, was an excellent portrait painter, who painted subtle and spiritualized female images (“Portrait of Beatrice Pacheco”, 1545; “Portrait of Queen Claude”), distinguished by their almost miniature execution and fine glazing and sonorous colors.

Simple and sincere portraits of children and men by Corneille de Lyon are characterized by the ability to reveal the depth of the inner world of the model, the truthfulness and naturalness of poses and gestures (“Portrait of a Boy”, “Portrait of an Unknown Man with a Black Beard”).

From the middle of the XVI century. in France, talented masters of pencil portraits worked: B. Foulon, F. Quesnel, J. Decourt, who continued the traditions of the famous Francois Clouet. Excellent portrait painters who worked in graphic technique were the brothers Etienne and Pierre Dumoustier.

The beginning of the French Renaissance dates back to the middle of the 15th century. It was preceded by the process of formation of the French nation and the formation of a national state. On the royal throne, the representative of the new dynasty - Valois. The campaigns of the French kings in Italy introduced the artists to the achievements of Italian art. Gothic traditions and Netherlandish art tendencies are supplanted by the Italian Renaissance. The French Renaissance had the character of a court culture, the foundations of which were laid by kings-patrons starting with Charles V.

Jean Fouquet (1420-1481), the court painter of Charles VII and Louis XI, is considered the greatest creator of the Early Renaissance. He is also called the great master of the French Renaissance. He was the first in France to consistently embody the aesthetic principles of the Italian Quattrocento, which presupposed, first of all, a clear, rational vision of the real world and comprehension of the nature of things through the knowledge of its internal laws. Most of Fouquet's creative heritage is made up of miniatures from the books of hours. In addition, he painted landscapes, portraits, paintings on historical subjects. Fouquet was the only artist of his time who had an epic vision of history, whose greatness is commensurate with the Bible and antiquity.

At the beginning of the 16th century, France turns into the largest absolutist state in Western Europe. The royal court becomes the center of cultural life, and the first connoisseurs and connoisseurs of beauty are the courtiers and the royal retinue. Under Francis I, an admirer of the great Leonardo da Vinci, Italian art becomes the official fashion. The Italian mannerists Rosso and Primaticcio, invited by Margherita of Navarre, sister of Francis I, founded the Fontainebleau school in 1530. This term is usually called the direction in French painting, which arose in the 16th century in the castle of Fontainebleau. In addition, it is used in relation to works on mythological subjects, sometimes voluptuous, and to intricate allegories created by unknown artists and also dating back to mannerism. The Fontainebleau school became famous for creating majestic decorative paintings of the castle ensembles.

In the 16th century, the foundations of the French literary language and high style were laid. The French poet Joashen du Bellay (c. 1522-1560) in 1549 published a program manifesto "Protection and glorification of the French language." He and the poet Pierre de Ronsard (1524-1585) were the most prominent representatives of the French poetic school of the Renaissance - the Pleiades, which saw its goal in raising the French language to the same level with the classical languages \u200b\u200bGreek and Latin. The poets of the Pleiades focused on ancient literature.

Among the prominent representatives of the French Renaissance was also the French humanist writer Francois Rabelais (1494-1553). His satirical novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" is an encyclopedic monument of French Renaissance culture. The work was based on folk books about giants common in the 16th century (the giants Gargantua, Pantagruel, the truth-seeker Panurge). Rejecting medieval asceticism, restriction of spiritual freedom, hypocrisy and prejudice, Rabelais reveals the humanistic ideals of his time in the grotesque images of his heroes.

The great humanist philosopher Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) put an end to the cultural development of France in the 16th century. The book of essays, marked by freethinking and a kind of skeptical humanism, represents a set of judgments about everyday mores and principles of human behavior in various circumstances. Sharing the idea of pleasure as the goal of human existence, Montaigne interprets it in the Epicurean spirit - accepting everything that is released to man by nature.

French art of the XVI-XVII centuries. based on the traditions of the French and Italian Renaissance. Fouquet's paintings and graphics, Goujon's sculptures, castles from the time of Francis I, the Fontainebleau Palace and the Louvre, Ronsard's poetry and Rabelais's prose, Montaigne's philosophical experiments - everything bears the stamp of a classic understanding of form, strict logic, rationalism, and a developed sense of grace.

The renaissance in France had basically the same prerequisites for its development as in Italy. However, there were significant differences in the socio-cultural background of the literary process in both countries. Unlike Italy, where in the northern regions already in the XIII century. a political upheaval takes place and a number of completely independent city republics arise in France, where bourgeois development at that time was slower than in Italy, the nobility continued to remain the ruling class.

From all this follows a certain backwardness of the French bourgeoisie in comparison with the Italian or even English, and, in particular, its weak participation in the humanist movement. On the other hand, humanistic ideas found significant support in the circles of the nobility, who came into direct contact with the culture of Italy.

In general, the strong influence of Italy is one of the most important features of the French Renaissance. The rapid flowering of humanistic thought coincides with the first half of the reign of Francis I (1515-1547). The Italian campaigns, which began under his predecessors and continued by him, greatly expanded cultural relations between the two peoples. Young French nobles, once in Italy, were blinded by the wealth of its cities, the splendor of clothes, the beauty of works of art, the elegance of manners. An intensified import of Italian Renaissance culture to France immediately began. Francis 1 attracted to his service the best Italian artists and sculptors - Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Benvenuto Cellini. Italian architects build him castles in the new Renaissance style in Blois, Chambord, Fontainebleau. A large number of translations of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, and others appear. A large number of Italian words from the field of art, technology, military affairs, secular amusements, etc. penetrate into the French language. Of the Italian humanists who moved to France at that time, the most prominent was Julius Caesar Scaliger (d. 1558), physician, philologist and critic, author of the famous “Poetics” in Latin, in which he outlined the principles of a learned humanistic drama. .

Rice. 29.1

In parallel, there was an in-depth study of antiquity, which also reached partly through Italian mediation. In the first years of his reign, Francis I ordered the publication of translations of the works of Thucydides, Xenophon and others “for the instruction of the French nobility”. his famous translation of Plutarch's Lives.

Francis I wanted to personally lead the French Renaissance in order to direct it and keep it under his control, but in reality he only followed the mental movement of the era. Of his advisers, the true leaders of the movement, in the first place should be Guillaume Bude (Guillaume Bude, 1468-1540), who first served as secretary of Francis I, then his librarian. Bude wrote a huge number of works in Latin on philosophy, history, philology, mathematics and jurisprudence. Bude's main idea was that philology is the main basis of education, since the study of ancient languages and literature expands a person's mental outlook and improves his moral qualities. Much in Bude's views on religion, morality, education brings him closer to Erasmus of Rotterdam. Bude's largest undertaking was the plan to create a secular university, carried out by Francis I. According to Bude's plan, teaching in it should be based not on scholasticism and theology, as at the Sorbonne, but on philology. Thus arose in 1530 the College de France, which immediately became the citadel of free humanistic knowledge.

The second most important moment that determined the fate of the French Renaissance is its special relationship with the Reformation, at first consonant with humanism, but then sharply diverged from it.

In the history of French Protestantism, two periods must be distinguished - before the mid-1530s and after. The first Protestants of France were scattered intellectuals of a humanistic way of thinking, who were critical of all issues, including the foundations of religion, but at the same time were little inclined to preaching and fighting. The outstanding mathematician and Hellenist Lefebvre d'Etaples (1455-1537), who visited Italy and was imbued with the ideas of Platonism thanks to conversations with Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola, began, returning to France, to interpret Aristotle in a new way, i.e. referring exclusively to the primary sources and trying to penetrate into their true meaning, not distorted by scholastic comments. Following this, Lefebvre had the idea to apply the same method to the books of Holy Scripture - and here he discovered that neither fasting, nor the celibacy of the clergy, nor most of the "sacraments" in the Gospel is said. From this arose in him and his friends the idea to return to the original purity of the gospel teaching, to create an "evangelical" religion. Delving further into the consideration of the principles of Christianity, Lefebvre in 1512, i.e. five years before Luther's speech, he put forward two propositions that later became the main ones for Protestantism of all persuasions: 1) justification by faith, 2) Holy Scripture as the only basis of religious doctrine. To reinforce the new doctrine, Lefebvre published his translation of the Bible, the first in French.

The Sorbonne condemned this translation, as well as all new heresy in general. Several of Lefebvre's followers were executed, and he himself had to flee abroad for a while. Soon, however, Francis I rehabilitated him and even appointed his son's tutor. In general, during this period, the king favored the Protestants and even thought about introducing Protestantism in France. However, in the mid-1530s, a sharp turn took place in his policy, which was caused by the general offensive in Europe of reaction and the counter-reformation associated with it - a coup conditioned by the fear of the ruling classes of peasant uprisings and too bold aspirations of humanistic thought, which threatened to overturn "all the foundations of ". Francis' tolerance for any kind of freethinking - religious or scientific-philosophical - came to an end. Executions of Protestants and free-thinking humanists became commonplace. One of the cases of flagrant arbitrariness was the burning at the stake in 1546 of the outstanding scientist and printer Etienne Dolet.

At this very time, French Protestantism enters its second phase. It becomes its head Jacques Calvin(1509-1564), who moved in 1536 from France to Geneva, which from now on becomes the main center of Calvinism, leading the entire Protestant movement in France. In the same year, 1536, Calvin finally formulated his doctrine in the Instruction in the Christian Faith, which originally appeared in Latin and was reprinted five years later in French. From this point on, contemplative, utopian evangelism is replaced by a harsh, militant Calvinism.

The bourgeois essence of the Reformation appears clearly in the teachings of Calvin, who recommends thrift and the accumulation of wealth, justifies usury and even allows slavery. The basis of Calvin's doctrine are two provisions - about "predestination" and about the non-intervention of God in the life of the world, subject to immutable laws. According to the first of them, every person from birth is destined either for eternal bliss or eternal torment, regardless of how he will behave in life. He does not know what he is destined for, but he must think that salvation awaits him and must show this with his whole life. Thus, this doctrine of "predestination" does not lead to fatalism and passivity, but, on the contrary, is a stimulus to action.

The followers of Calvin and his main provisions on predestination and non-intervention of God develop the doctrine of "worldly vocation", according to which everyone should strive to extract as much profit and benefit from his profession, and of "worldly asceticism", prescribing frugality and moderation in satisfying his needs in order to increase their property. Hence the view of work as a "duty" and the transformation of the thirst for accumulation into the "virtue of accumulation".

Despite the clearly expressed bourgeois nature of Calvinism, he found numerous supporters in those layers of the nobility who did not want to come to terms with absolutism, mainly in the south, which was annexed relatively late (in the 13th century), as a result of which the local nobility had not yet had time to forget about their liberties and tried to be on her own. Thus, if in the second quarter of the XVI century. Protestantism spread almost exclusively among the bourgeoisie, and more or less evenly throughout France, but since the middle of the century it has been spreading intensively among the southern French nobility, the stronghold of feudal reaction. When in the second half of the XVI century. religious wars broke out, it was the Calvinist nobles who fought against absolutism who acted as organizers and leaders of the uprising; moreover, after the end of the war, many of them willingly joined Catholicism.

At the same time, the character of Protestantism is changing, renouncing the principle of freedom of research and imbued with the spirit of intolerance and fanaticism. A vivid example is the burning by Calvin in 1553 of Miguel Serveta (1511 - 1553), a Spanish theologian, physician, naturalist, accused by him of belonging to the revolutionary Anabaptist sect.

Rice. 29.2.

In France, divided into two camps - Catholics and Protestants, there was no complete national party, since both belligerents, to the detriment of their homeland, often acted in alliance with foreign rulers. The Huguenots (as the Protestants were called in France), who had no support among the people, constantly called for help from their co-religionists from Germany, Holland and England. As for the Catholics, at first they were a party of national and religious unity, but over time, especially after the Catholic League was created in 1576, the leaders of the party began to seek support from Spain and even thought about transferring the French crown to the Spanish king Philip II . True patriotism could be found in those days only among the masses of the people: among the peasants or among the urban plebeian masses, who, completely ruined by civil wars and driven to despair, suddenly rose, like their great-grandfathers in the Hundred Years War, to beat both the Spanish soldiers and the German soldiers at the same time. Reiters, and most importantly - their own noble landowners of any political grouping and any religion. But these peasant uprisings, of which the largest occurred around 1580 and around 1590, could not be crowned with success and were ruthlessly suppressed, often with the help of betrayal and treason.

Humanism had some points of contact with both parties, but even more differences. Many humanists were attracted to the Catholic party by the idea of national unity (Ronsard and other members of the Pleiades), but most of them could not put up with the narrowness of thought and the superstitions of Catholicism. And the humanists were repelled from Calvinism by its bourgeois narrow-mindedness, ever-increasing fanaticism. But still, the rationalistic leaven of Calvinism, its heroic spirit, high moral exactingness and the dream of some ideal structure of human society attracted many humanists to it (Agrippa d'Aubigne, and from an earlier time - Maro). However, the most profound humanists, such great writers of the French Renaissance as Rabelais, Denerier, Montaigne, eschewed religious strife, equally alien to the fanaticism of both faiths, and most likely tended to religious freethinking.

The writers of the French Renaissance, in comparison with the early medieval authors, are characterized by an extraordinary expansion of the horizon, a large coverage of intellectual interests. The greatest of them acquire the features of the "universal man" typical of the Renaissance, receptive to everything and involved. The most striking example of this is the work and activities of Rabelais, a doctor, naturalist, archaeologist, lawyer, poet, philologist and brilliant satirical writer. Great versatility can also be observed in the work of Maro, Marguerite of Navarre, Ronsard, d'Aubigné and others.

Typical features, more or less common to all writers of the century, are, on the one hand, spontaneous materialism, susceptibility to everything material and sensual, on the other hand, the cult of beauty, concern for the elegance of form. In accordance with this, new genres are born or old ones are radically transformed. A colorful and realistically developed short story appears (Marguerite of Navarre, Denerier), a peculiar form of a satirical novel (Rabelais), a new style in lyrics (Marot, then especially Ronsard and Pleiades), the beginnings of a secular Renaissance drama (Jodele), an anecdotal-moral-descriptive type of memoir (Brant), civic accusatory poetry (d'Aubigné), philosophical "experiments" (Montaigne), etc.

Both poetry and prose of the French Renaissance are characterized by a broader, more realistic approach to reality. Images are more specific and individual. Abstraction and naive edification are gradually disappearing. Artistic truthfulness becomes a measure and a means of expressing the ideological content.

In the French Renaissance, several stages should be distinguished. In the first half of the century, humanistic ideas flourished, optimism prevailed, faith in the possibility of building a better, more perfect way of life. Although since the mid-1530s this mood has been overshadowed by impending reaction, the religious and political split has not yet had time to fully manifest its destructive effect.

In the second half of the century, in the midst of religious wars beginning or being prepared, the first signs of doubt and disappointment are observed among humanists. Nevertheless, in the third quarter of the century, powerful efforts are being made to create a new, completely national poetry and a rich national language. Beginning in the 1560s, the crisis of humanism reaches its full strength, and literature reflects, on the one hand, the battles and fermentation of minds caused by civil wars, on the other hand, profound quests that prepare the later forms of social and artistic consciousness.

Questions and tasks

1. When does the Renaissance begin in France?
2. What is the specificity of the origin and development of the Renaissance in France compared to Italy?
3. What is the role of Francis I in the development of the French Renaissance?
4. Using reference books and encyclopedias, get an idea of what the Reformation and Calvinism are.
5. What are the characteristic features of the worldview and creativity of the representatives of the French Renaissance?
6. Make a table of the stages of the Renaissance in France, reflecting in it: 1) historical events; 2) main ideas; 3) a brief description of the most significant authors; 4) titles and dates of the main works.

Topics of abstracts and reports

1. The role of Italy in the development of the French Renaissance.
2. Italian masters in France: Leonardo da Vinci and Benvenuto Cellini.
3. Reformation in France.

Renaissance - translated from French means "Renaissance". That is how they called the whole era, symbolizing the intellectual and artistic flowering of European culture. The renaissance originated in Italy at the beginning of the 14th century, heralding the decline of the era of cultural decline and the Middle Ages, which was based on barbarism and ignorance, and, developing, reached its peak in the 16th century.

For the first time, a historiographer of Italian origin, painter and author of works on the life of famous artists, sculptors and architects at the beginning of the 16th century wrote about the Renaissance.

Initially, the term "Renaissance" meant a certain period (the beginning of the XIV century) of the formation of a new wave of art. But after a while, this concept acquired a broader interpretation and began to denote a whole era of development and formation of a culture opposite to feudalism.

The Renaissance period is closely connected with the emergence of new styles and techniques of painting in Italy. There is an interest in ancient images. Secularism and anthropocentrism are integral features that fill the sculptures of that time and painting. The Renaissance replaces the asceticism that characterized the medieval era. There comes an interest in everything mundane, the boundless beauty of nature and, of course, man. Renaissance artists approach the vision of the human body from a scientific point of view, trying to work out everything to the smallest detail. Pictures become realistic. Painting is full of unique style. She established the basic canons of taste in art. A new worldview concept called "humanism" is widely spread, according to which a person is considered the highest value.

Renaissance period

The spirit of flourishing is widely expressed in the paintings of that time and fills the painting with a special sensuality. The Renaissance connects culture with science. Artists began to consider art as a branch of knowledge, studying in detail the physiology of man and the world around him. This was done in order to more realistically reflect the truth of God's creation and the events taking place on their canvases. Much attention was paid to the depiction of religious subjects, which acquired an earthly content thanks to the skill of geniuses such as Leonardo da Vinci.

There are five stages in the development of Italian Renaissance art.

International (court) Gothic

Originated at the beginning of the 13th century, court Gothic (ducento) is characterized by excessive brilliance, pomp and pretentiousness. The main type of paintings is a miniature depicting altar scenes. Artists use tempera paints to create their paintings. The Renaissance is rich in famous representatives of this period, such as the Italian painters Vittore Carpaccio and Sandro Botticelli.

Pre-Renaissance Period (Proto-Renaissance)

The next stage, which is considered to have anticipated the Renaissance, is called the Proto-Renaissance (trecento) and falls at the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th century. In connection with the rapid development of the humanistic worldview, the painting of this historical period reveals the inner world of a person, his soul, has a deep psychological meaning, but at the same time has a simple and clear structure. Religious plots fade into the background, and secular ones become leading, and a person with his feelings, facial expressions and gestures acts as the main character. The first portraits of the Italian Renaissance appear, taking the place of icons. Famous artists of this period are Giotto, Pietro Lorenzetti.

Early Renaissance

At the beginning, the stage of the early Renaissance (quattrocento) begins, symbolizing the flowering of painting with the absence of religious subjects. The faces on the icons take on a human form, and the landscape, as a genre in painting, occupies a separate niche. The founder of the artistic culture of the early Renaissance is Mosaccio, whose concept is based on intellectuality. His paintings are highly realistic. The great masters explored linear and aerial perspective, anatomy and used the knowledge in their creations, which can be seen in the correct three-dimensional space. Representatives of the early Renaissance are Sandro Botticelli, Piero della Francesca, Pollaiolo, Verrocchio.

High Renaissance, or "Golden Age"

From the end of the 15th century, the stage of the high Renaissance (cinquecento) began and did not last long, until the beginning of the 16th century. Venice and Rome became its center. Artists expand their ideological horizons and are interested in space. A person appears in the image of a hero, perfect both spiritually and physically. The figures of this era are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Titian Vecellio, Michelangelo Buonarroti and others. The great artist Leonardo da Vinci was a "universal man" and was in a constant search for truth. Being engaged in sculpture, dramaturgy, various scientific experiments, he managed to find time for painting. The creation "Madonna in the Rocks" clearly reflects the style of chiaroscuro created by the painter, where the combination of light and shadow creates a three-dimensional effect, and the famous "Gioconda" is made using the "smuffato" technique, which creates the illusion of haze.

Late Renaissance

During the late Renaissance, which falls at the beginning of the 16th century, the city of Rome was captured and plundered by German troops. This event marked the beginning of the era of extinction. The Roman cultural center ceased to be the patron of the most famous figures, and they were forced to disperse to other cities in Europe. As a result of the growing inconsistency of views between the Christian faith and humanism at the end of the 15th century, Mannerism becomes the predominant style that characterizes painting. The Renaissance is gradually coming to an end, since the basis of this style is considered to be a beautiful manner that overshadows ideas about the harmony of the world, truth and the omnipotence of the mind. Creativity becomes complex and acquires the features of confrontation of various directions. Brilliant works belong to such famous artists as Paolo Veronese, Tinoretto, Jacopo Pontormo (Carrucci).

Italy became the cultural center of painting and endowed the world with brilliant artists of this period, whose paintings still evoke emotional delight to this day.

In addition to Italy, the development of art and painting had an important place in other European countries. This trend was named. Particularly noteworthy is the painting of Renaissance France, which grew on its own soil. The end of the Hundred Years War caused the growth of universal consciousness and the development of humanism. In there is realism, a connection with scientific knowledge, an attraction to the images of antiquity. All of the above features bring it closer to Italian, but the presence of a tragic note in the canvases is a significant difference. Famous Renaissance artists in France - Anguerrand Charonton, Nicolas Froment, Jean Fouquet, Jean Clouet the Elder.

The art of book miniature is developing, in which mystical and religious images have been replaced by realistic ideas about the surrounding world. At the court of the Duke of Burgundy, the above-mentioned talented artists, the Limburg brothers, work. Famous Dutch masters worked in Burgundy (painters van Eyck brothers, sculptor Sluter), so in this province the influence of the Dutch Renaissance is noticeable in the art of French masters, while in other provinces, for example in Provence, the influence of the Italian Renaissance has increased.

Jean Fouquet

Jean Fouquet was born around 1420 in Tours in the family of a priest. He studied painting in Paris and, possibly, in Nantes. He worked in Tours as a court painter to King Charles VII, then Louis XI. He had a large workshop in which the orders of the royal court were carried out.

For several years, Fouquet lived in Italy, in Rome, where he got acquainted with the work of Italian masters. But, despite the fact that in his works, especially early ones, the influence of Italian and Dutch art is noticeable, the artist quickly developed his own, unique style.

Fouquet's art manifested itself most clearly in the portrait genre. The portraits of Charles VII and his ministers created by the artist are realistic and truthful, they contain neither flattery nor idealization. Although the manner of execution of these works in many ways resembles the paintings of the Dutch painters, the portraits of Fouquet are more monumental and significant.

Most often, Fouquet portrayed his models in moments of prayer, so the heroes of his works seem to be immersed in their own thoughts, they seem to not notice either what is happening around them or the audience. His portraits are not distinguished by ceremonial splendor and luxury of accessories, the images on them are lavish, prosaic and static in a Gothic way.

On the portrait of Charles VII (c. 1445) there is an inscription: "The most victorious king of France." But Fouquet depicted the king so reliably and truthfully that there are absolutely no indications of his victoriousness: the picture shows a frail and ugly man, in whose appearance there is nothing heroic. The viewer sees in front of him an egoist sated with life and tired of entertainment with small eyes, a large nose and fleshy lips.

Just as true and even merciless is the portrait of one of the most influential courtiers of the king - Juvenel des Urzen
(c. 1460). The painting depicts a fat man with a swollen face and a smug look. The portrait of Louis XI is also realistic. The artist did not seek to somehow embellish his models, he depicted them exactly as they were in life.

This is confirmed by the numerous pencil drawings that preceded the pictorial portraits.

Fouquet's masterpiece was a diptych written around 1450, one part of which depicts Etienne Chevalier with St. Stephen, and on the other - the Madonna with the baby Jesus. Maria strikes with her grace and calm beauty. The pale bodies of the Madonna and Child, the gray-blue dress and Mary's ermine robe contrast sharply with the bright red figures of the little angels surrounding the throne. Clear lines, laconic and strict coloring of the picture give the image solemnity and expressiveness.

The images of the second part of the diptych are distinguished by the same strict clarity and inner depth. His characters are pensive and calm, their looks reflect bright character traits. Stefan stands freely and simply, depicted as a real person, not a saint. His hand rests patronizingly on the shoulder of the slightly shackled Etienne Chevalier, who is represented by the artist at the moment of prayer.

Chevalier is a middle-aged man with a wrinkled face, a hooked nose and a stern look in small eyes. This is probably what he looked like in real life. Like the picture with the Madonna, this part of the diptych is distinguished by the integrity of the composition, the richness and sonority of color, based on red, golden and purple hues.

A large place in the work of Fouquet is occupied by miniatures. These works of the artist are very similar to the works of the Limburg brothers, but they are more realistic in depicting the world around them.

Fouquet created wonderful illustrations for the "Great French Chronicles" (late 1450s), Etienne Chevalier's Book of Hours (1452-1460), Boccaccio's "Novels" (c. 1460), "Jewish Antiquities" by Josephus Flavius (c. 1470). In miniatures depicting religious, antique scenes or Italian life, contemporary French cities with quiet streets and large squares, meadows, hills, river banks of the beautiful homeland of the painter, wonderful architectural monuments of France are guessed, among which is Notre Dame Cathedral, Saint-Chapelle.

Miniatures almost always feature human figures. Fouquet liked to depict scenes of peasant, urban and court life, episodes of the battles of the recently ended war. On some miniatures you can see portraits of the artist's contemporaries ("Representation of Our Lady by Etienne Chevalier").

Fouquet is a talented chronicler, his works describe historical events with amazing accuracy, detail and truth. Such is the miniature "The Trial of the Duke of Alençon in 1458", representing more than two hundred characters on one sheet. Despite the huge number of figures, the image does not merge, and the composition remains crisp and clear. The characters in the foreground seem especially alive and natural - the townspeople who came to stare at the court, the guards holding back the pressure of the crowd. The color solution is very successful: the central part of the composition is highlighted by the blue background of the carpet, which covers the place of judgment. Other carpets with beautiful ornaments, tapestries and plants emphasize the expressiveness of the miniature and give it a special beauty.

Fouquet's works testify to the ability of their author to masterfully convey space. For example, his miniature "St. Martin" (Etienne Chevalier's Book of Hours) depicts the bridge, embankment, houses and bridges so accurately and reliably that it is easy to restore the appearance of Paris during the reign of Charles VII.

Many of Fouquet's miniatures are distinguished by subtle lyricism, which is created thanks to the poetic and calm landscape (the sheet "David learns of the death of Saul" from "Antiquities of the Jews").

Fouquet died between 1477-1481. Very popular during his lifetime, the artist was quickly forgotten by his compatriots. His art received a worthy appreciation only many years later, at the end of the 19th century.

One of the most famous artists of the late XV century. was Jean Clouet the Elder, also known as the Master of Moulin. Until 1475 he worked in Brussels, and then moved to Moulin. Around 1498-1499 Jean Clouet the Elder performed his most significant work - a triptych for the Moulin Cathedral, on the central wing of which the scene "Our Lady in Glory" is presented, and on the side - portraits of customers with patron saints.

This era was marked not only by transformations in the economy and politics of France, but also by the wide spread of Renaissance humanistic ideas, which were most fully represented in literature, in the writings of Ronsard, Rabelais, Montaigne, Du Bellay. Montaigne, for example, considered art the main means of educating a person.

Of great interest is the portrait art of this period. French portrait painters continued the best traditions of the masters of the 15th century, and above all Jean Fouquet and Jean Clouet the Elder.

The greatest French portraitist of this era was Jean Clouet the Younger.

Jean Clouet the Younger

Jean Clouet the Younger, son of Jean Clouet the Elder, was born c. 1485 Father became his first teacher of painting. There is little information about the artist's life, it is only known that from 1516 Jean Clouet the Younger worked in Tours, and from 1529 - in Paris, where he held the position of court painter.

The portraits of Jean Clouet the Younger are amazingly authentic and truthful. These are the pencil images of the courtiers: Diane Poitiers, Guillaume Goufier, Anna Montmorency. The artist repeatedly painted some of the king’s associates: three portraits of Gaio de Genuillac, a participant in the Battle of Marignano, made in 1516, 1525 and 1526, two portraits of Marshal Brissac, dating back to 1531 and 1537, have survived to this day. One of his best pencil portraits is the image of Count d'Etan (c. 1519), in which the master's desire to penetrate into the depths is noticeable.
the inner world of man. The portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam (1520) is also remarkable, surprisingly vital and spiritual.

Jean Clouet the Younger mastered not only the pencil, but also the brush. This is proved by a few canvases that have survived to this day. Among them - a portrait of the Dauphin Francis (c. 1519), Duke Claude of Guise (c. 1525), Louis de Cleves (1530).

The images are somewhat idealized in the solemn portraits of little Charlotte of France (c. 1520) and Francis I on horseback (1540). Of great interest is the intimate portrait of Madame
Canapel (c. 1523), depicting a sensually beautiful woman with a sly smile on her tender lips, and a simple and strict portrait of an unknown person with a volume of Petrarch in his hand.

Some researchers believe that the portrait of Francis I, currently kept in the Louvre, belongs to the brush of Jean Clouet the Younger. This version is confirmed by a drawing made by the artist, although it is possible that he served as a model for one of the students of Jean Clouet the Younger (for example, his son Francois Clouet) to create a picturesque portrait of the king.

The Louvre portrait of Francis I combines solemnity, decorativeness and the desire to reflect the individual features of the model - the king-knight, as Francis was called by his contemporaries. The splendor of the background and the rich attire of the king, the brilliance of accessories - all this gives the picture splendor, but does not overshadow the diverse range of human feelings and character traits that can be read in the eyes of Francis: deceit, vanity, ambition, courage. The portrait showed the artist's observation ability, his ability to accurately and truthfully notice that unique thing that distinguishes one person from another.

Jean Clouet the Younger died in 1541. His work (especially drawings) had a great influence on numerous students and followers, among whom perhaps the most talented was his son Francois Clouet, whom Ronsard in his "Elegy to Jean" (Jean's contemporaries called everyone representatives of the Clouet family) called "the honor of our France."

Francois Clouet

François Clouet was born around 1516 in Tours. He studied with his father, Jean Clouet the Younger, helped him in fulfilling orders. After the death of his father, he inherited his position as court painter to the king.

Although the influence of Jean Clouet the Younger, as well as Italian masters, is noticeable in the work of Francois Clouet, his artistic style is distinguished by its originality and bright personality.

One of the best works of Francois Clouet is the painting "The Bathing Woman" (c. 1571), which, in terms of the manner of execution, is a bit like the painting of the Fontainebleau school. At the same time, unlike the mythological compositions of this school, it gravitates towards the portrait genre. Some art historians believe that the painting depicts Diana Poitier, while others believe that this is the beloved of Charles IX, Marie Touchet. The composition contains elements of genre: the painting depicts a woman in a bath, next to which stands a child and a nurse with a baby in her arms; in the background is a maid heating water for bathing. At the same time, thanks to a special compositional construction and a clear portraiture in the interpretation of the image of a young woman looking at the viewer with a cold smile of a brilliant secular lady, the canvas does not give the impression of an ordinary everyday scene.

The remarkable skill of François Clouet manifested itself in his portrait work. His early portraits are in many ways reminiscent of the works of his father, Jean Clouet the Younger. In more mature works, the original manner of the French master is felt. Although for the most part these portraits are distinguished by grandeur and solemnity, the brilliance of accessories and the luxury of costumes and draperies do not prevent the artist from presenting the viewer with the vividly individual characteristics of his models.

Several portraits of Charles IX by François Clouet have survived. In an early pencil portrait of 1559, the artist depicted a self-satisfied teenager, looking importantly at the viewer. The drawing of 1561 represents a closed, slightly constrained young man, dressed in a full dress. A picturesque portrait, executed in 1566, shows the viewer Charles IX in full growth. In a fragile figure and a pale face, the artist noticed the main features of his character: indecision, lack of will, irritability, selfish stubbornness.

One of the most remarkable works of French art of the XVI century. became a picturesque portrait of Elisabeth of Austria, written by François Clouet around 1571. The painting depicts a young woman in a magnificent dress adorned with sparkling jewels. Her beautiful face is turned to the viewer, and expressive dark eyes look wary and incredulous. The richness and harmony of color make the canvas a truly masterpiece of French painting.

In a different manner, an intimate portrait is written in which Francois Clouet portrayed his friend, the pharmacist Pierre Kute
(1562). The artist placed the hero in his usual office environment, near the table on which the herbarium lies. Compared with the previous work, the picture is distinguished by a more restrained color scheme, built on a combination of golden, green and black hues.

Of great interest are the pencil portraits of Francois Clouet, among which the portrait of Jeanne d'Albret stands out, representing a graceful young girl, in whose eyes the viewer can assume a strong and decisive character.

Between 1550 and 1560, Francois Clouet created many graphic portraits, including beautiful drawings depicting little Francis II, the lively and charming girl Marguerite of Valois, Mary Stuart,
Gaspard Coligny, Henry II. Although some images are somewhat idealized, the main feature of the portraits is their realism and truthfulness. The artist uses a variety of techniques: sanguine, watercolor, small and light strokes.

Francois Clouet died in 1572 in Paris. His art had a great influence on contemporary artists and graphic artists, as well as French masters of the next generations.