“Correct articulation of the sounds of the Russian language. Vowels and consonants
The characteristic of consonants includes five main features.
1. Place of education consonant depends on which active organ commits
the main work and with which passive organ it closes or approaches.
If the active organ is the lower lip, then the consonants can be labial: [P],
[p'], [b], [b'], [m], [m'] (passive organ - upper lip) and labio-dental: [c], [c'], [f], [f' ]
(passive organ - upper teeth).
If the active organ is language, then the characteristic of the consonant depends on which
part of the tongue - the anterior, middle or posterior - participate in the creation of a barrier and with which passive faceted - teeth, anterior, middle or posterior part of the palate - the tongue approaches or closes.
Front lingual consonants there are dental when the front
goes to the teeth: [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [s], [s'], [s], [s'], [n], [n'], [ l], [l'], [c], and
anterior palatine when it is directed to the front of the sky: [p], [p '], [w], [g], [h '].
Anterior palatal consonants are also called alveolar, because. in these consonants, the place of greatest approximation of the anterior part of the back of the tongue to the anterior part of the palate is the alveoli, in some consonants it is also adjacent to the alveoli
area of the hard palate.
Middle-lingual at the same time always midpalatal: .
back lingual consonants (active organ - back of the back of the tongue):
- posterior palatine(tongue directed towards the back of the palate): [k], [g], [x], [γ], [ng];
– midpalatal: [k '], [g '], [x '], [γ '].
2. Method of consonant formation- this is a characteristic of an obstacle in the oral cavity on the path of an air stream and a way to overcome it. This obstacle can be of three kinds: a narrow gap between the contiguous speech organs, their complete closure, and the active organ trembling in the flow of speech.
occlusive consonants include the moment of complete cessation of the flow of air
jets through the oral cavity. Depending on the nature of overcoming the bow, consonants are divided into:
1. Clutch-explosive- noise is formed as a result of a strong rupture of the bow: [b],
[b '], [p], [n '], [d], [d '], [t], [t '], [g], [g '], [k], [k '].
2. Link-through- when they are formed in the oral cavity, a complete
closure, but the air does not break the bow, but rushes around it.
Smuchno-passage are divided into:
- nasal(air passes through the nasal cavity): [m], [m], [ng] (nasal
back-lingual, pronounced in place [n] before [k], [g]: rank, slang, dotted line, congress.
– side: [l], [l '].
3. Closing-slotted(affricates) - the opening of the bow for these sounds does not occur
instantly, by an explosion, but by going into the gap: [c] - [d ^ z], [c '] - [d ' ^ z '], [h] - [d ^ w], [h '] - [ d'^g'].
slotted(fricative, from lat. - fricatio - friction). When gaps are formed
consonants, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a gap. Air rubs against the walls of the slot and noise is generated. The slotted sounds include: [v], [v'], [f], [f'], [s], [s'], [h], [h'], [w], [w':] , [x], [x':], [x], [x'], [γ], [γ'], .
Trembling are formed as a result of vibrations (vibrations) of the tip of the tongue under
by the action of an air stream, as a result of which the tip of the tongue closes and opens with the alveoli: [p], [p '].
3. According to the noise level(the degree of its intensity) consonants are divided into sonorants: [m],
[m'], [n], [n'], [l], [l'], [r], [r'], and noisy [n], [n'], [b], [b' ], [f], [f'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [s],
[s '], [s], [s '], [c], [h '], [w], [g], [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [ x], [x'] noise intensity of noisy
consonants are much higher than sonorants. This is explained by differences in the tension of the organs of speech, in the width of the passage for the air stream and in its strength when pronouncing sonorous and noisy consonants. Noisy consonants are formed with greater muscle tension than in sonorants in the place of the oral cavity where the air stream is obstructed. The width of the passage for the air jet during the articulation of sonorous consonants is greater than during the articulation of noisy consonants. Therefore, the strength of the air stream coming out of the oral cavity during speech is much greater when pronouncing noisy consonants than when pronouncing sonorants.
4. By participation or non-participation of the vote all consonants are divided into voiced and deaf.
Deaf and voiced consonants are determined by the absence or presence of their
pronunciation of voice (tone). The voice comes from vocal cords
close together and tremble when passing a jet of air. This is how voiced consonants are formed: [p], [l], [m], [n], , [b], [c], [g], [d], [g], [s]. The difference between voiced sonorants and voiced noisy ones is that in voiced sonorants the voice significantly prevails over the noise, while in voiced sonorants the noise prevails over the voice. Without a voice, with the help of noise alone, deaf consonants are formed: [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [c], [h ’], [w]. When they are pronounced, the glottis is opened, and the vocal cords are relaxed.
By deafness / voicedness, consonants form pairs:
12 correlation pairs
[b], [b '], [c], [c '], [g], [g '], [d], [d '], [g], [g ':], [h], [h']
[n], [n'], [f], [f'], [k], [k'], [t], [t'], [w], [w':], [s], [With']
9 non-correlative voiced sounds(sonor)
[l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [p], [p’], [j]
[–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–]
4 non-correlative voiceless sounds(noisy)
[–], [–], [–], [–]
[x], [x’], [c], [h]
In a number of recent textbooks on the modern Russian language, in particular in
textbook "Russian language" in 2 parts (authors Kasatkin L.L., Lvov M.R., Terekhova T.G. and others) / ed. L.Yu. Maksimova, "Modern Russian Language" (author Dibrova, Kasatkin L.L.) states that all consonants have pairs of voicedness - deafness:
[c] - [d ^ z]: bridgehead, special task, end of the year;
[h ’] - [d’ ^ w ’]: to lie down, there was a daughter, head base;
[x] - [γ]: accountant, two years old, there were two of them.
Sonorant sounds also have deafness pairs: [l] - [l], [m] - [m], [n] - [n], [r] - [r],
[j]–[j].
Deaf sonorants can appear at the end of a word after a deaf consonant: met[r],
whih [r '], meaning [l], dog [n '].
5. By the presence or absence of palatalization, i.e. mitigation (from lat. palatum -
sky) consonants are divided into soft and hard.
Soft consonants are characterized by the fact that to the main articulation of consonants
an additional one is added - palatalization - raising the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate and moving the back of the tongue forward. Therefore, soft consonants, except for [j], are palatalized.
In [j], the elevation of the middle part of the tongue to the middle part of the palate is not additional, but
the main articulation, so [j] is a palatal sound.
When solid consonants are formed, the back of the back of the tongue tenses and
rises to the soft palate. Such consonants are called velarized (from Latin velum palāti - palatine curtain).
In the scale of inconsistency [g], [w], [c] are hard consonants; [w ':], [h '], - soft consonants.
The sounds [h], [w], [g] in certain positions have correlative pairs in terms of softness.
[h] has hard couple before hard [w]: lu [h '], but better [h] she. At [c] a soft pair is found before: five [c ’] sya.
At solid sound[w] couple - sound [w ':]: [w ':] ka
Only the voiced [j] cannot have a solid pair, because it is out of correlation.
The articulation of Russian consonants is concentrated mainly in the anterior part of the oral cavity. For most of them, the active organ is the tongue, and the most active in the formation of Russian consonants is the anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue.
All Russian hard consonants are colored for the vowel [s], and soft ones - for the vowel [i]. The position at the beginning of a word before a vowel in a stressed syllable for Russian consonants is recognized as the least dependent on environmental conditions; in this position, the own constant features of a particular consonant are most fully manifested. Therefore, in phonetic studies, it is customary to correlate the implementation of the main shade of Russian consonants with this position. The question of the basic shade of consonants is more difficult to solve than for vowels, because they cannot be pronounced "in pure form", in isolation, as, for example, vowels, although in general the possibility of isolated pronunciation of consonants cannot be denied. However, it is extremely difficult to avoid pronouncing a vowel overtone at the end of a consonant, which is probably due to the nature of consonants as "accompanying" vowels
The quality of a consonant depends on many factors in the phonetic context: on the position relative to the stress, the nature of the syllable, and also on the nature of the articulation of the adjacent sound. Therefore, speaking of positional (due to position) and combinatorial (due to the influence of the articulation of neighboring sounds) shades of consonants, it is necessary to take into account the position of the consonant in the word (absolute beginning, absolute end, middle), the type of sound combination (consonant - vowel, consonant - consonant, vowel - consonant - vowel, consonant - consonant - consonant, etc.), the quality of the neighboring sound in the indicated combinations (roundness, non-roundness of the vowel, characteristics of the neighboring consonant, etc.).
When pronouncing the sound [p] (see Fig. 7.), the lips close at the first moment, and the air coming from the lungs into the pharynx and mouth cavities is compressed. Then the labial bow explodes and the air is pushed out of the mouth. The position of the tongue depends on the next sound. If the sound [p] is at the end of a word or syllable, then the language remains passive. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal cords are open. You can see the work of the lips and feel the push of air on the hand raised to the mouth. When pronouncing the sound [b], the position of the lips, tongue, soft palate is the same as when articulating the sound [p]. Unlike the latter, during articulation [b], the vocal folds are closed and vibrate.
When pronouncing the sound [t] (see Fig. 8.), the lips are open and take a position that depends on the next sound. The upper and lower incisors are close together. At the first moment, the tongue forms with its front edge a bow with the upper incisors, and with its lateral edges it is adjacent to the upper molars. The next moment the bow explodes. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are open. You can see the position of the lips, the edges of the incisors and the work of the tongue, and also feel the push of air on the hand brought to the mouth. When pronouncing the sound [d], the position of the lips, tongue, soft palate is the same as when articulating the sound [t]. JB unlike the latter, during articulation [e], the vocal folds are closed and vibrate.
Rice. 7. [p]..[b] Fig.8. [t]..[d]
Rice. 9. -(k)...[g]
When pronouncing the sound [k] (see Fig. 9.), the position of the lips and the distance between the upper and lower incisors depends on the next sound. The tip of the tongue is below, the back at the first moment closes with the sky; the place of the bow depends on the next sound (when ka- Approximately on the border between the hard and soft palate, with ki- in front of this border). The next moment the bow explodes. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are open. Visible (indistinct) is the position of the tongue and its operation. You can also feel the push of the exhaled air on your hand. When pronouncing the sound of the sound [r], the position of the lips, tongue, soft palate is the same as with the articulation of the sound [k]. Unlike the latter, during articulation [r], the vocal folds are closed and vibrate.
Fig.10. - [f]... [c] Fig. P. - [s] ... [s]
When pronouncing fricatives [f] and [v] (see Fig. 10.), the lower lip is pressed against the upper incisors, leaving a narrow gap in the middle through which a stream of exhaled air passes. The upper lip is raised. The tongue is in a position depending on the next sound. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. With articulation [f], the vocal folds are open, with articulation [v], they are closed and vibrate. The characteristic position of the lips and upper incisors are clearly visible. On the hand brought to the mouth (slightly above the level of the mouth), one can feel a strong cold stream of air directed obliquely upwards.
When pronouncing the sound [s] (see Fig. 11.), the lips are somewhat stretched into a smile. The teeth are compressed or brought together so that the distance between the incisors does not exceed two millimeters. The tip of the tongue rests on the gums of the lower incisors, the back is curved and approaches the alveoli, the lateral edges are adjacent to the upper molars; a groove forms in the middle of the tongue, and a narrow round gap forms between the back of the tongue and the alveoli. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are open. You can see the position of the lips and incisors, and if you open your mouth, then the position of the front of the back of the tongue. You can feel with your hand a cold strong stream of air directed obliquely downwards. When pronouncing the sound [h], the position of the lips, tongue, soft palate is the same as when articulating the sound [s]. Unlike the latter, with [h], the vocal cords are closed and vibrate.
When pronouncing the sound [w] (see Fig. 12.), the lips are slightly pushed forward. The teeth are compressed or brought together so that the distance between the incisors does not exceed 2-3 mm. The front edge of the tongue is raised and touches the palate behind the alveoli, leaving a narrow flat gap in the middle; the lateral edges are adjacent to the upper molars. The entire tongue is shaped like a cup. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are open.
You can see the position of the lips, the upper and lower incisors, and if you open your mouth slightly, tilting your head back a little, then the position of the tongue. On the hand raised to the mouth, you can feel a wide warm stream of air directed obliquely downwards. When pronouncing the sound [g], the position of the lips, tongue, soft palate is the same as when articulating the sound [w]. Unlike the latter, when articulating [g], the vocal folds are closed and vibrate. You can see the position of the lips and incisors, and if you open your mouth, then the position of the tongue. You can feel abundant warm air on your hand.
Rice. 12. -(w]...(w)
Rice. 13.-[x]
When pronouncing the sound [x] (see Fig. 13.), the position of the lips and the distance between the incisors depend on the next sound. The tip of the tongue is lowered, the back is raised to the palate and is in contact with it, leaving middle line a narrow gap through which a stream of exhaled air passes. The place where the gap is formed depends on the following sound: when ha- approximately on the border between the hard and soft palate, with hee - ahead of this border. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are open, when pronouncing a sound, the position of the tongue is visible (unclear). You can also feel a rather strong stream of exhaled air on your hand.
Letter sch in Russian graphics denotes two sounds: long soft [sh "] ([w "] fuck, glue [w "] and) and combination [w "h"] ([w"h"]ka, according to [w"h"]hell). Unlike the sound [w], the long soft [w "] is characterized by a higher position of the back of the tongue and its slight movement forward, which causes a slight decrease in the size of the cavity between the tongue and the front teeth and, together with the rise of the back of the tongue, contributes to a known increase in hissing noise. Soft the palate is raised, the vocal folds are open.
Rice. 14. - [w"]... |w"h"]
Rice. 15.[th] [j]
When pronouncing the sound [th], the tongue is advanced forward and has a convex shape. The middle part of the back of the tongue is raised high to the hard palate. The anterior and posterior parts of the tongue are steeply lowered. An obstruction is formed on the path of the air stream as a result of the convergence of the middle and slightly anterior part of the back with the area of the hard palate. The soft palate is raised. The vocal folds are close. The lips are slightly stretched at the corners.
Rice. 16.-[c] Fig. 17.-[h"|
When pronouncing the sound [ts] (see Fig. 16.), the lips are open, take a position depending on the next sound, and tend to stretch into a smile. The teeth are compressed or brought together so that the distance between the incisors does not exceed 2 mm. The tip of the tongue rests on the gums of the lower incisors. The lateral edges of the tongue are adjacent to the upper molars; the back of the tongue at the first moment closes with the alveoli, and then bounces into a position corresponding to the articulation of the sound [s].
When pronouncing the sound [h "] (see Fig. 17.), the lips are slightly pushed forward. The teeth are compressed or brought together so that the distance between the incisors does not exceed 2-3 mm. The front edge of the tongue is raised and at the first moment forms a bridge with the palate behind alveoli; at the next moment, the bow explodes and the front edge of the tongue bounces to a position corresponding to the articulation of the upper soft [w] (the softness of the sound is due to the more forward than with the hard [w] position of the tongue and the higher rise of its back). The lateral edges of the tongue are adjacent to the upper molars, and the entire tongue has the shape of a cup. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are open. At the moment of pronouncing the sound [h "], you can see the position of the lips, the upper and lower incisors, and if you open your mouth, then the position tongue, its work (in this case, the head should be thrown back a little). With a hand brought to the mouth, you can feel a sharp push of a warm stream of air.
Rice. 18. - [m]
When pronouncing the sound [m] (see Fig. 18.), the lips are closed without tension and open without an explosion. When moving to the next vowel, a smooth opening occurs; at the end of a syllable (word) there may be no opening. The position of the tongue depends on the next sound. The soft palate is pubescent, exhaled air passes into the nose. The vocal folds are closed and vibrate. You can see the position of the lips, feel the vibration of the larynx, chest, cheeks and wings of the nose.
When pronouncing the sound [n] (see Fig. 19.), the position of the lips depends on the vowel following it. Anterior edge of the tongue on syllables on, but, well. us and in reverse syllables is pressed against the upper incisors. At the transition to the next sound, there is not an explosion of the bow, but an opening; in reverse syllables, there may not be any opening. in syllables no, neither the bow is formed by the front part of the back of the tongue pressed against the alveoli, due to which the sound softens (positional softening); the tip of the tongue is either at the top, behind the upper incisors, or below, behind the lower incisors. The soft palate is lowered and air passes through the nose. The vocal folds are closed and vibrate. You can see the position of the lips, the position and work of the front of the tongue, you can feel the vibration of the larynx, chest, wings of the nose.
Rice. 19. -[n]
Rice. 20. - [l]
When pronouncing the sound [l] (see Fig. 20.), the lips are slightly open, not stretched, but slightly gathered at the corners. The upper and lower incisors are at a slight distance from each other. The tongue takes the form of a sting and rests with its tip against the upper incisors or their gums. The lateral edges of the tongue do not close with the molars, as a result of which passages for exhaled air remain on the sides. Sometimes such a passage remains only on one side, more often on the left. The root part of the tongue is raised. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are closed and vibrate. You can see the position of the lips, the edges of the incisors, and the shape and position of the tip of the tongue. With the help of touch, the vibration of the larynx and a weak exhalation from the mouth are perceived.
When pronouncing the sound [p], the position of the lips and the distance between the incisors depend on the next sound. The tongue takes the form of a spoon: with its lateral edges it is adjacent to the upper molars, the front edge of the tongue is raised to the alveoli and trembles under the pressure of the exhaled air. When articulating re, ri(before front vowels) the back of the tongue rises higher, and the front edge moves forward, closer to the upper incisors; the result is a softened [p]. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage of air into the nose. The vocal folds are closed and vibrate. You can see the position of the lips, the upper and lower row of teeth, the position and work of the tongue (the latter - with a slightly thrown back head).
Articulation of soft consonants
Soft consonants differ in articulation from paired hard consonants by an additional rise in the back of the tongue to the hard palate, and some (k, g, x) also a noticeable movement of the tongue forward.
The softness of a consonant can be determined by which vowel ([i] or [e] follows it. This can be seen when comparing at least such a series of syllables as pa, po, poo, py(hard consonant) and pe, pi(soft consonant). The exceptions are the consonants [w], [g] and [c], which do not soften before the vowel [e] and after which the vowel [i] cannot be pronounced. After these consonants, only the letter [and] can stand, but at the same time it is read as [s]. This can be seen in the example of syllables ish, shu, she, shi and words awl, knives, circus in all cases, the sounds [w], [g] and [c] remain solid. The exception is a long soft [g] in words with combinations LJ And zzh, For example, reins, yeast, squeals, where the softness of the consonant allows you to pronounce the sound [and] after it. The softness of one consonant may be due to the softness of another consonant following it - partial assimilation in softness. This can be seen when comparing words such as bow - bow, eat - eat, where the soft consonant [t "] softens the preceding consonants [n] and [s].
Along with the combinatorially determined softness of consonants, consonants are widely used in Russian, the softness of which is completely independent. For example, in the words five honey. Luba soft sounds [p "], [m"], [l"] are in front of the vowels [a], [o], [y], which does not require the confusion of the previous consonant at all, as evidenced by at least such words as steam, bridge, bow. Likewise in words stranded, horse, blood the softness of the consonants [l "], [n"] and [f"] is not due to neighboring sounds, as can be seen from a comparison of the given words with the words chalk, horse, blood. True, these vowels themselves, adjacent to soft consonants, are pronounced in a special way in the variant that is characteristic of such a neighborhood, which is essential for capturing the softness of consonants by ear.
Articulation- the coordinated work of the organs of speech, necessary for the pronunciation of sounds. As a result of studying in the articulatory aspect, all organs of speech are divided into:
Active(lips - labium, tongue - anterior part, middle part, back part, small uvula or uvula, vocal cords) Passive(upper teeth, alveoli, hard palate or palatum, soft palate or velum)
Sound is characterized by the totality of the movements of everything speech apparatus.
The articulation of sound is a process. There are 3 phases of articulation:
1. Excursion- the organs of speech are preparing for the pronunciation of sound. * when pronouncing voiced consonants, the vocal cords are advanced
2. Excerpt- maintaining the position of the organs of speech for pronouncing a sound.
3. recursion- return of the organs of speech to their previous position or preparation for pronouncing the next sound.
The work of the speech apparatus is due to the anatomical and physical aspect of studying the sound composition of the language, i.e. from the point of view of the "mechanisms" of the formation and perception of sounds.
From the respiratory apparatus, the air stream under the action of contracting ribs that press on the diaphragm and force it to rise, thereby pressing on the lungs, they contract, the air stream is pushed out and enters the larynx through the trochea and bronchi. The vocal cords are located in the larynx. The vocal cords are muscle fibers that are stretched vertically, horizontally and diagonally, this arrangement allows the vocal cords to influence the characteristics of sounds. The larynx consists of several cartilages. throats. From the pharynx, the air stream rushes into the oral resonator. On the border of the oral resonator is the palatine curtain. If it is raised, then the air stream easily passes into the oral cavity, if it is lowered, then into the nasal cavity.
Question 21. Principles of classification of speech sounds. Classification of vowels.
There are 2 types of speech sounds: vowels and consonants
In Russian 41 SGL, 6 GL
The set of vowels forms vocalism
The set of consonants forms consonantism
Vowels and consonants are distinguished: Functionally, articulatory, acoustically.
The main difference is the role in syllable formation. * acc. in syllable formation sonant(from lat. sono-sound sing), vowel. in syllable formation it is a consonant. The articulatory difference between GL and SGL is in the different tension of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of education. Vowel formation: the speech channel is open, the entire pronunciation apparatus is tense, the air stream does not encounter obstacles in its path. Consonant formation: The voltage is localized, at the place where the barrier is formed, a strong air jet overcomes the barriers at the focus of the formation of the SHL, exploding it or passing through the gap. Noises constitute the characteristic of the SHL.
Vowel classification
The basis of classification is the row and rise of the tongue, the work of the lips, nasalization, tension and longitude.
Row determined by the part of the tongue, which rises. => 3 types of GL: front, middle, rear
Climb is determined by the degree of elevation of the tongue during the formation of GL. => 3 lift types:
upper(GL called narrow) , average(middle GL) , lower(wide HL)
Lip involvement GL are divided into labial(labialized, rounded), non-labial
Question 22
1. According to the proportion of noise, tone: SGL are divided into noisy and sonorous.
Sonorants: r, l, m, n, d
2. According to the place of formation of the barrier SGL are divided into labial and lingual.
Labial consonants:
Labiodental in, f
3.interdental acc. th(not in Russian)
Lingual front-lingual consonants - s, t, d / middle lingual th, middle lingual g ', x ' / back lingual - g, k, x.
Front-lingual have classifications depending on which organ the language interacts with -
Dental (h, s)
Alveolar acc.
Palatine acc. (w, w)
3. According to the method of education:
All consonants are divided depending on how they overcome obstacles in the oral cavity. If an obstacle overcome in the oral cavity forms an explosion, then such consonants are explosive.
Smuchno-explosive B, L, K, G, D, T.
Smuchno fricative (affricates)- at the beginning of the oral cavity, a tight closure occurs, but this closure does not abruptly open, but passes into a gap - S, H
Fricative (slotted) acc.- when they are formed, there is no tight bond, but a gap is prepared in advance by our organs into which the air stream penetrates.
Sonorant according to may be tight through M, N
The R sound is a trembling slur.
The sound L is a slur lateral. The air jet flows around the barrier on the sides.
Mitigation – palatalization, softening process
during palatalization, according to, the middle part of the tongue rises to the TV, the sky, hence the shape of the oral resonator changes, this leads to an increase in half a tone of sound.
Velarization (hardening) - the back of the back of the tongue rises to the palatal curtain and hard consonants have a lower timbre. Additional articulation also includes - nosalization, pharyngolization (tension of the walls of the pharynx), laryngolization (narrowing in the larynx)
- always sonorous and always soft accord th
- always deaf and soft h
Always hard and deaf with
Topic 1.
Modern Russian literary language as a scientific discipline.
Phonetics as the science of the sound structure of a language.
You begin to study the discipline "Modern Russian Literary Language" - one of the most important disciplines for a philologist.
The term modern Russian literary language (SRLYA) is used in the science of linguistics in two meanings:
1. the object of the science of linguistics;
2. designation of science, scientific discipline.
Modern Russian literary language as a means of communication between people- the object of the science of linguistics. Under modern Russian is usually understood as 1) Russian from A.S. Pushkin to the present day; 2) Russian language from the second half of the 20th century. Russian called the language of communication of Russian people, the Russian nation. Literary language is a complex concept that not all researchers understand in the same way. Most often, the literary language is understood as the language of citizens with higher or secondary education. Inside literary language such a system as colloquial speech stands out.
The modern Russian language is the science of the internal laws and norms of the Russian literary language in its state of the art. This course lays the foundation for knowledge of linguistic theory.
Any word of the Russian literary language can be characterized from the following positions:
1. what sounds does it consist of;
2. what does it mean;
3. what parts can be distinguished in it;
4. what part of speech it refers to;
5. how it is related to other words in the sentence;
6. in what sphere of human activity it is used.
Depending on what description of the word is in the center of attention of scientists, the course of the modern Russian language is divided into the following sections:
1. Phonetics - the subject of study is the sound structure of the language.
2. Lexicology - the subject of study is the vocabulary of the language and the meaning of the word.
3. word formation - the subject of study is the structure of words, the rules for the formation of words.
4. Morphology - the subject is the parts of speech of the Russian language.
5. Syntax - the subject of studying the connection of words in a sentence, phrase.
Phonetics is a section of the language in which the sound means of the language are studied. Such means include the sound of speech, phoneme, syllable, phonetic word, syntagma, intonational structure, stress. All units of phonetics are divided into segmental And supersegment.
The segment units are:
Sound is the smallest indivisible unit of a language system.
Syllable- consists of several sounds.
speech beat- consists of several syllables.
Phrase- consists of several speech measures.
Segment units, following one after another, create more complex units. For example, sounds create syllables legs, syllables - words legs etc.
The supersegment units are stress And intonation . Intonation creates the unity of the phrase, stress - the unity of the speech tact.
Phonetics is base level for all other levels of the language system. The units of all other levels consist of units of the phonetic level. Sometimes phonetic units and units of other levels coincide, but this is not always the case and one should not confuse units of different levels.
Questions and tasks.
1. Prepare answers to the questions:
1. What two concepts are called "modern Russian language"?
2. Decipher the definition of the following components of the concept of SRLYA: modern, Russian, literary.
3. What is studied in the course of disciplines "Modern Russian Language"?
4. What is studied in the course "Phonological system of the modern Russian language"?
4. Fill in the table
| Segmental phonetic units | Supersegmental phonetic units |
Topic 2
The sound of speech.
Articulation of vowels and consonants.
Letters.
Sounds and letters.
You are already familiar with the letters of the Russian language. A letter is a graphic sign, a designation of a pronounced sound. The letter is what we write. Sound is what we say and hear. There are many more speech sounds than letters in Russian, because not all sounds are indicated by letters. Compare : cat And cat'. Is the sound in place of the letter "O" the same in both words?
Sound and letter do not always match. Say the words cat And code. Do they differ when you say them? In both words, at the end of the word is the sound /t/, which in one word is denoted by the letter D, and in the other by the letter T.
We said above that we pronounce and hear the sound of speech. When we pronounce sounds, the organs of speech work: tongue, lips and others. The work of the organs of speech is the articulation of sound. The characteristics that help us distinguish different sounds by ear, these are their acoustic characteristics.
So, the sound of speech is the smallest insignificant unit of speech that has articulatory and acoustic characteristics.
Articulation is the work done by the organs of speech to produce the sound of speech. All organs of speech can be divided into two groups: active, which move when we pronounce sounds, and passive, motionless. The active ones are the tongue, lips, uvula, the passive ones are the teeth, alveoli, hard palate, soft palate.
There are 3 phases in articulation: excursion, excerpt and recursion. We do not immediately pronounce the sound, first our speech organs must prepare for work - this is the excursion phase. The organs of speech went to work, then there is a stop or slow movement at the place of work - this is the endurance phase. At the end of articulation, the organs of speech leave their work - this is the phase of recursion. The main phase is exposure, without it there is no sound.
All sounds of the Russian language are divided into vowels and consonants. When air passes freely through the mouth, a vowel is formed. If the air in the mouth encounters an obstacle, a consonant is pronounced. When a vowel is formed, the vocal cords, vibrating, create a tone; when a vowel is formed, noise predominates. The presence of tone is called sonority.
Classification of sounds according to the principle of sonority:
Vowel sounds (a, y, and ...) - only tone;
Sonorant consonants (r, l, m, n ...) - tone and noise, but tone prevails;
Noisy voiced consonants (b, c, d, g ....) - tone and noise, but noise prevails;
Noisy deaf consonants (p, f, t, w ...) - only noise.
Tasks and exercises.
Exercise 1.
a) Say the sound O and the sound P. Say which of the sounds can be pulled.
b) Say the sounds O, U and A, I. Say how your lips move when you make these sounds.
c) Follow the articulation of the sounds P, F, K. What organs of speech are involved in the pronunciation of these sounds?
d) Put your hand on your throat (there are the vocal cords) and say the sounds A, B, P. During the articulation of which sounds, the vocal cords are tense and vibrate?
Articulatory characteristics of consonants
You already know that when a consonant is formed in the oral cavity, an obstacle arises. Pronounce the sounds /p/ and /f/. An obstruction can be formed by complete closure of the speech organs /n/, or by incomplete closure with the formation of a gap /f/. The bow and slit is way of education barriers. Consonants formed by the complete closure of the organs of speech are called stop. Consonants whose articulation creates a gap are fricative consonants.
Different organs of speech are involved in the formation of consonants. When articulating some (/p/, /b/, /m/), an obstacle is formed with the help of the lips - these are labial-labial. When articulating others (/v/, /f/), a gap appears between the lip and the teeth - these are the labio-tooth. An obstruction can be formed with the help of lips, teeth, tongue and palate. This - place of education barriers. According to the place of formation, consonants are divided into labial-labial, labio-dental, anterior-lingual dental, anterior-lingual anterior-palatal, middle-lingual, middle-palatal, posterior-lingual, middle-palatal, and posterior-lingual posterior-palatal.
We have already talked about the concept of sonority. The presence/absence of sonority is voice to noise ratio when forming a consonant. According to the ratio of voice and noise, all consonants are divided into sonorous and noisy. Sonorant consonants - /m, m’, n, n’, l, l’, p, p’, d/. The rest of the consonants are noisy.
Not all noisy consonants are the same: in the formation of some consonants there is a voice, in the formation of others they are not. This - loudness or deafness consonant sound. Therefore, noisy consonants are divided into noisy voiced and noisy deaf. Noisy voiced: /v, v', z, z', f, g', b, b', d, d', g, g', dz, d'zh', bm, b'm', dn, d'n', dl, d'l'/. Noisy deaf: /f, f', s, s', sh, sh', x, x', p, p', t, t', k, k', c, c', h, h', pm , p'm', tn, t'n', tl, t'l'/.
Some words of the Russian language differ only in hard and soft consonants: new, new, brother, take. When a soft (palatalized) consonant is formed, an additional articulation is added to the main articulation: the front of the tongue rises to the hard palate. When a hard (not palatalized) consonant is formed, additional articulation is as follows: the back of the tongue rises to the soft palate. One consonant in Russian is not hard and not soft - palatal. This is /th/, during the formation of which the tongue rises to the middle part of the palate - this is its main articulation, there is no additional one. The presence or absence of additional articulation is softness/hardness consonant
So, in order to characterize a consonant, it is necessary to name whether it is sonorous or noisy, its place of formation, the method of formation, whether it is hard or soft, deaf or sonorous. For example : /cat/ - /k/ - noisy consonant, posterior lingual posterior palatine, stop, solid, deaf. /T/ - consonant, noisy, anterior lingual dental, stop, hard, deaf.
So, the articulatory characteristics of consonants include:
1. way of education;
2. place of education;
4. sonority / deafness;
5. hardness/softness.
ADD A CHART OF CONSONANTS
Exercise 1.
Tell me what's different following words:
The cat is a year, the sides are for now, the army is glad, let it be empty, beat - twist.
§ 6. Sounds are pronounced with the help of the organs of speech. The main organs of speech are the lips (upper and lower); teeth (upper and lower); tongue (distinguish: front, middle and back parts of the tongue); alveoli (tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth); solid sky; soft sky; nasal cavity; nasopharynx; epiglottis; laryngeal cavity; vocal cords, between which is the glottis; trachea, bronchi; lungs; diaphragm.
§ 7. The articulatory characteristic is different for vowels and consonants. The characteristic of vowel sounds includes differences in the degree of tongue elevation (depending on the vertical movement of the tongue), along the row (depending on the horizontal movement of the tongue), and the presence or absence of labialization (rounding). The articulatory characteristic of consonant sounds includes differences in the participation of noise and voice, in the place and method of noise formation, in the presence or absence of palatalization (mitigation).
§ 8. The articulatory characteristics of vowels are presented in Table. 1. The table includes
Table 1
Articulatory characteristics of vowels
| Characteristics of vowel sounds | Vowel sounds | ||||||
| [And] | [s] | [y] | [e] | [O] | [A] | ||
| According to the degree of elevation of the tongue | top lift | + | + | + | |||
| medium lift | + | + | |||||
| bottom lift | + | ||||||
| In a row, or in a place where the tongue is raised | front row | + | + | ||||
| middle row | + | + | |||||
| back row | + | + | |||||
| By the presence or absence of labialization | round | + | + | ||||
| unlabialized | + | + | + | + | |||
there are stressed vowels in the position of the absolute beginning of the word not before a soft consonant (for example, [a], [o], [y], [i], [s], [e] - the names of letters; [a] d, [o] kna , [y] goal, [and] gly, [s] kat (pronounce the sound [s] instead of o, a) (special), [e] that (spelling it).
§ 9. According to the degree of elevation of the tongue, i.e., depending on the movement of the tongue vertically in relation to the palate, vowels of the upper, middle and lower rise are distinguished (see Fig. 1).
High vowels include [and], [s], [y]. When upper vowels are formed, the middle (y [and], [s]) and the back of the back of the tongue (y [y]) rise high to the palate: to the hard - when pronouncing [and], to the back of the hard and to the front of the soft palate - when pronouncing [s] and to the soft palate - when pronouncing [y].
Middle vowels include [e] and [o]. In the formation of vowels of the middle rise, the middle (y [e]) and the back of the back of the tongue (y [o]) first rise high to the palate, and then fall lower.
[a] belongs to low vowels. When the sound [a] is formed, the tongue almost does not rise to the palate and lies flat.
§ 10. According to the row, or according to the place where the tongue is raised, i.e., depending on the horizontal movement of the tongue, the vowels of the front, middle and back rows are distinguished (see Fig. 2).
Front vowels include [i] and [e]. When forming front vowels, the middle part of the back of the tongue moves forward, the tip of the tongue drops and rests on the lower teeth (y [i]) or is located at the lower teeth (y [e]).
Back vowels include [o] and [y]. When forming back vowels, the tongue moves back, the tip of the tongue touches or does not touch the lower teeth (y [o]) or drops (y [y]).
The middle vowels include [s]. With the formation of a middle vowel, which occupies an intermediate position between the front and back vowels, the tongue is pushed back into lesser degree than in the formation of back vowels, the back of the tongue is highly raised.
The vowel [a] is not localized in relation to the row: when the sound [a] is formed, the tongue almost does not articulate towards the palate.
§ 11. According to the presence or absence of labialization, that is, depending on the participation or non-participation of the lips in the formation of vowels, vowels are distinguished between labialized and non-labialized. In the formation of labialized vowels, the lips move forward, round and form a narrow air outlet. The vowels [o] and [y] are labialized. When forming the vowel [o], the lips protrude to a lesser extent than when forming the vowel [y]. Lips do not take an active part in the formation of non-labialized vowels. Non-labialized ones include [u], [s], [e], and [a].
§ 12. The articulatory characteristics of consonants are presented in Table. 2. The table includes consonant sounds that appear in positions before vowels, for example [n] ar, [n '] el, [b] ar, [b '] el, [f] ara, [f '] etr, [ in] ar, [v '] id, [t] ak, [t '] ik, [d] orog, [d '] elo, [s] alo, [s '] ate, [s] al, [s '] mirror, [ts] drop, [h] as, [sh] ar, [zh] ar, [〙 '] and, to [〇 '] and, [k] ak, [k '] sly, [g ]am, [g '] id, [x] ata, [x '] and triy, bka, [m] al, [m '] ir, [r] az, [r '] isa, [n] ac, [ n '] from, [l] apa, [l '] ica.
§ 13. Depending on the degree of participation in the formation of consonant voices and noise, noisy consonants (voiced and voiced) and sonorants are distinguished.
If the vocal cords are close, tense and fluctuate, then a voice arises. If the vocal cords are not close, not tense and do not fluctuate, then the voice does not arise. When the air stream passes through the obstacles, friction occurs, resulting in noise. The ratio of voice and noise depends on the strength of the air stream, on the nature of the barrier, and on the strength of the muscular tension of the organs of speech. The weaker the air stream, the stronger voice and weak noise, and vice versa, the stronger the air jet, the stronger the voice and the weaker the noise. The ratio of voice and noise is different for different consonants.
When pronouncing noisy ones, a certain kind of barriers are formed in the oral cavity, through which a strong air stream passes, forming a noise that is clearly audible along with the voice. Noisy consonants include [n], [n '], [b], [b'], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [t], [t '], [ e], [d'], [s], [s'], [s], [s'], [c], [h], [w], [g], [〙'], [〇' ], [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'].
When pronouncing sonorants in the oral cavity, barriers also arise, but a weak air stream passing through this barrier forms only a slight noise; air passes freely through the opening in the nasal or oral cavity. Sonorants are pronounced with the help of a voice with the addition of a slight noise. Sonorants include consonants [j], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [p], [p '].
§ 14. Depending on the degree of participation of the vocal cords and on the strength of the muscular tension of the active (or also passive) organ of speech (see § 15), noisy voiceless and voiced are distinguished. The voice does not participate in the formation of deaf noisy voices: the vocal cords are not close, not tense, do not fluctuate. In the formation of deaf noisy, moreover, more energetic work of the active (or also passive) organ of speech takes place than in the formation of voiced noisy ones. The deaf noisy consonants include [p], [p '], [f], [f '], [t], [t '], [s], [s '], [c], [h], [ w], [〙'], [k], [k'], [x], [x']. Noisy voiced consonants are formed with the help of noise with the addition of a voice: the vocal cords are close, tense and fluctuate. Noisy voiced ones include [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [d], [d '], [h], [h '], [g], [〇 '], [ r], [r'].
Note. In modern Russian, a double pronunciation of the sound is allowed in place of the letter combinations zhzh, zzh inside the root morph: [〇'], for example vi[〇']at, e[〇']y, and [〇], for example vi[〇]at , e[〇]y (but only dro[〇']u, vo[〇']u). The pronunciation [〇'] corresponds to the old Moscow pronunciation norms (see § 23). It is also possible to pronounce the sound twice in place of the letter combination zhd in the word rain and in the formations from it rainy, rainy. In accordance with the old Moscow pronunciation norms, in place of the combination of letters zhd, [〇'] and at the end of the word [〙'] are pronounced, for example, do[〇'˙а], do[〇'˙у]..., do[〙'] , up to[〇']living, with admissible up to[x'(g)]living, up to[〇']eva. In accordance with modern standards in place of the letter combination zhd, it is possible to pronounce [zhd '], [zhd], at the end of the word [pcs '], for example, until [zhd '] I, before [zhd '] yu .., before [pcs '], until [zhd ]living, until [waiting ']eva.
Consonants that differ only in deafness - voicedness and forming pairs [p] - [b], [p '] - [b '], [f] - [c], [f '] - [c '], [t] - [d], [t '] - [d '], [s] - [s], [s '] - [s '], [w] - [g], [〙 '] - [〇 '], [k] - [g], [k '] - [g '], are called paired for deafness - voicedness, and consonants [c], [h], [x], [x '], as well as sonorant [p] , [p '], [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [j] - unpaired in deafness - voicedness (see § 126).
Note. In modern Russian, in accordance with old Moscow norms, the letter u is in place, as well as letter combination sch, zch is pronounced long soft [〙 ']; [〙']i, bru[〙']atka, izvo[〙']ik. In the traditional Leningrad pronunciation (see § 23), instead of [〙 '], [sh'h] is pronounced: [sh'h] and, bru [sh'h] atka, out [sh'h] ik.
table 2
Articulatory characteristics of consonants
| Sound | Participation of noise and voice | Noise generation method | Location of noise | Presence or absence of palatalization | |||||||||||||||
| noisy | sonorny | deaf | voiced | occlusive | affricate | slotted | sluice-through | trembling | labial | lingual | |||||||||
| labial | labiodental | anterior lingual | middle language | posterior lingual | |||||||||||||||
| side | nasal | ||||||||||||||||||
| dental | palatine-tooth | midpalatal | guttural | solid | soft | ||||||||||||||
| [P] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [P'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [b] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [b '] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [f] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [f'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [V] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [V'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [T] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [T'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [e] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [d'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [With] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [With'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [h] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [h '] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [c] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [h] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [w] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [and] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [〙’] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [〇’] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [To] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [To'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [G] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [G'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [X] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [X'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [j] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [m] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [m'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [n| | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [n'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [R] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [R'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [l] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
| [l'] | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||||||||||
To characterize consonants at the place of noise formation, it is enough to note the participation of teeth, tongue, lips and palate.
According to the place of noise formation, all consonants differ depending on the articulation of the active and passive organ of speech. The active organs are the tongue in the lower lip, and the passive organs are the upper lip, teeth and palate.
According to the active organ, all consonants are divided into labial and lingual. The labial consonants include [n], [n '], [b], [b '], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [m], [m ']; lingual consonants include [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [s], [s'], [h], [h'], [c], [h], [w ], [g], [〙'], [〇'], [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'], [j], [n] , [n'], [l], [l'], [p], [p']. Lingual are subdivided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual (see Fig. 3).
| Rice. 3. [t], [d] (–––––) [k], [g] (– – – – –); [j] (–.–.–.–). | ||
The anterior part of the tongue is involved in the formation of anterior lingual consonants. The front-lingual ones include [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [s], [s '], [h], [h '], [c], [h], [w] , [g], [〙'], [〇'], [n], [n'], [p], [p'], [l], [l']. The middle part of the back of the tongue is involved in the formation of middle language consonants. [j] belongs to the middle language. The back part of the back of the tongue takes part in the formation of the posterior lingual. Back-lingual ones include [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '].
According to the passive organ, towards which the active organ articulates, the labial consonants are divided into labial and labial consonants (see Fig. 4, 5).
When teeth are formed, the front of the tongue articulates towards the upper teeth, forming an air barrier at the upper incisors and alveoli. Dental include [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [c], [s], [s '], [s], [s '], [n], [n' ], [l], [l']. With the formation of palatine teeth, the tip of the tongue is more bent upwards and backwards, forming a barrier to air in the dental part of the hard palate. The palatine teeth include [h], [w], [g], [〙 '], [〇 '], [p], [p '].
 | ||||
| Rice. 8. [j] | ||||
 |
||||
| Rice. 9. [k], [g] | Rice. 10. [x] | |||
The medial consonant [j] is mid-palatal in its passive organ; when it is formed, the back of the back of the tongue articulates towards the middle part of the palate (see Fig. 8).
The posterior lingual [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '] are posterior palatine according to the passive organ; when they are formed, the back of the back of the tongue articulates towards the soft palate (see Fig. 9, 10).
§ 16. According to the method of noise formation, that is, depending on the nature of the barrier that forms between the active and passive organs, noisy consonants are divided into stop, affricate and fricative (or fricative). When occlusive consonants are formed, the active organ, articulating towards the passive, forms a complete closure, or a complete shutter; exhaled air forcefully breaks this shutter, resulting in noise (see Fig. 4, 9). Stops include [n], [n '], [b], [b '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [k], [k '], [g ], [G']. When gap consonants are formed, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a gap; as a result of the friction of the exhaled air against the walls of the gap, noise is generated (see Fig. 5, 7, 10). Noisy slots include [f], [f'], [v], [v'], [s], [s'], [h], [h'], [w], [g], [〙 '], [〇'], [x], [x']. Among fricative noisy consonants, single-focal and two-focal consonants stand out. In monofocal consonants, noise is formed in only one place. So, when pronouncing [s] noise is formed in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth, when pronouncing [f] - in the gap between the lower lip and upper teeth, and when pronouncing [x] - in the gap between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. Single-focus slits include [s], [s '], [s], [s '], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [x], [x ']. In bifocal consonants, noise is formed simultaneously in two places. So, when pronouncing [w], the noise is formed simultaneously in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the beginning of the hard palate and in the gap between the back of the back of the tongue and the soft palate, and when pronouncing [〙 '] - simultaneously in the gap between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate , as well as the tip of the tongue and upper teeth. The slit two-focal ones include [w], [g], [〙’], [〇’].
Affricates occupy an intermediate position between stop and fricative. During the formation of affricates, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a complete closure, as in the formation of stops, however, the opening does not occur by explosion, but by the transition of closure into a gap. Affricates include [c], [h]. The sound [ts] is a single-focal affricate, during the pronunciation of which noise is formed in the gap between the front of the back of the tongue and the upper teeth (or alveoli). The sound [h] is a two-focal affricate, during the pronunciation of which noise is formed simultaneously in two places: in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the beginning of the hard palate (as when pronouncing [sh]) and in the gap between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate (as when pronouncing [〙']).
Sonorant consonants, depending on the method of formation, are divided into fricative, occlusive and tremulous.
The consonant [j] belongs to the fricative sonorants (see above the description of the fricative noisy ones and Fig. 8). When pronouncing [j], a gap is formed between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate, through which a weak air stream passes. As a result of the friction of the air jet against the walls of the slot, a voice with a slight noise arises.
When the occlusal passages are formed in the oral cavity, a complete closure is formed, as in the formation of the stoppers, but there is a passage for air through the mouth or through the nose. The occlusive passages are divided into oral, or lateral ([l], [l ']), and nasal ([m], [m '], [n], [n ']). See fig. 11, 12, 13.
 | ||
| Rice. 13. [n] | ||
When pronouncing [l], the tip of the tongue closes with the upper teeth (as in the formation of interlocks), but the sides of the tongue are lowered and form gaps through which a weak air stream passes freely. When pronouncing [m], the lips close (as in the formation of labial occlusives, see § 15), but the soft palate is lowered, as a result of which a weak air stream passes freely through the nasal cavity. When pronouncing [n], the front of the tongue rests against the beginning of the hard palate (near the upper teeth), but the soft palate is lowered, as a result of which a weak air stream freely passes through the nasal cavity.
With the formation of trembling, the tip of the tongue, slightly bent and raised to the alveoli, vibrates under the influence of the air jet, as a result of which it sometimes closes with the alveoli, then opens (see Fig. 14). The edges of the tongue are pressed against the lateral teeth, and a weak air stream passes in the middle. Trembling consonants include [p], [p '].
In most consonants, the raising of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate is an additional articulation that occurs simultaneously with the main articulation of the consonant, and only in [j] this articulation is the main one (see Fig. 8). Soft consonants include [p'], [b'], [t'], [d'], [f'], [c'], [s'], [h'], [h], [〙 '], [〇'], [k'], [g'], [x'], [j], [m'], [n'], [p'], [l']. Hard consonants are characterized by the absence of additional articulation. These include [p], [b], [f], [c], [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [w], [g], [k] , [g], [x], [m], [n], [p], [l]. Consonants [p], [p '], [b], [b '], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [t], [t '], [d], [d'], [s], [s'], [s], [s'], [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], [l], [l '], differing only in hardness - softness and forming pairs such as [p] - [p '], [b] - [b '], etc., are called paired in hardness - softness, and consonants [h], [w], [g], [〙'], [〇'], [ j], [ts], which do not form similar pairs, are unpaired in hardness - softness (see § 126).
