Turkic group of languages: peoples. Great ancient Turks
The work of Nurer Ugurlu "Turkic peoples" is dedicated to the Turkic ethno-linguistic community living today in various regions of the world, whose migration flows in the past were directed to Central Europe, the Far East, and India. The influence of the Turkic peoples was spread from the Danube to the Ganges, from the Adriatic to the East China Sea, and reached Beijing, Delhi, Kabul, Isfahan, Baghdad, Cairo, Damascus, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, the Balkan Peninsula. We discussed the most interesting fragments of the book with its author Nurer Ugurlu.
Khalil Bingel: How can one evaluate the historical past of the Turkic peoples?
Nurer Ugurlu: The book describes the history of numerous Turkic peoples living in Asia, Europe, Africa, which today are represented in various regions of the world. The concept of “people” can be defined as a human community, tribal union (“budun”), or ulus (“ulus”), whose members are connected with each other in terms of tribe and clan by common customs, language and culture. The tribal union is a close cooperation and association of the ancient Turks, formed from various tribes, which were characterized by political dependence. In various sources, this term is used in different meanings. The category “bodun”, which appeared for the first time in the Orkhon writings (VIII century), was used to designate all communities: local and foreign, nomadic and settled. In this regard, if we talk about the concept of "people", then it was used to name the Turkic communities formed from tribes of various sizes - both in relation to the Göktürks and Tobgaches (they invaded China), and for the Oguzes, Karluks, Uighurs, Kirghiz, Tatars. Initially, to define the people's community in the Orkhon writings, such terms as "black-bones people" ("kara kamag" or "kara bodun") or simply "bodun" were also mentioned. Muhammad al-Kashgari (XI century) noted in the "Collection of Turkic Dialects" that the term "budun" originated from the Chikil dialect, and interpreted it as "people" and "nationality". Western scholars have replaced the term "bodun" with the terms "people" and "volk". In the XIV century, in some works written during the period of the Golden Horde and Khorezm, this term is quite rare, and, referred to as "buzun", it is used to denote the concept of "people". In more late literature this term does not occur at all. Tribal unions were separate communities, each of which had separate lands and leaders. The associations were headed by kagans, who, depending on the size of the territories and population, bore such titles as “yabgu” (“yabgu”), “shad” (“şad”), “ilteber” (“ilteber”). Tribal unions, most of which were part of the Turkic Khaganate and were mentioned in the Letters of the Gökturks, once a year sent various gifts to the Khagan and confirmed their dependence on him, during the war, for example, supplying the fighting army with reinforcements. Thanks to the governors sent from the center, the kagans in many respects carefully controlled the tribal unions subordinate to them.
- Where were the first settlements of the Turks?
The Turks are one of the most ancient and permanent peoples in world history. This is a large folk community, the history of which goes back over four thousand years. Its territories of settlement cover Asia, Europe, Africa. The first settlements of the Turkic peoples were, first of all, the plateaus of Central Asia. These are vast territories stretching from the Khingan Mountains in the east to the Caspian Sea and the Volga River in the west, from the Aral-Irtysh watershed in the north to the Hindu Kush mountain system in the south. The plateaus of Central Asia were predominantly spacious steppes. Fertile territories were located from the northern sections of the Caspian and Aral Seas and Lake Balkhash to the Khingan Mountains. Sandy steppes in the south of these territories sometimes ended in deserts. The region of sandy steppes connected the fertile lands stretching from the Altai Mountains from east to west. Historians, considering the territories of Central Asia as the most ancient region of the settlement of the Turks, explore them, highlighting two areas - to the north and south of the Tien Shan. The region south of the Tien Shan is East Turkestan. The north of this territory covers the Altai Mountains, the Dzungarian Plain and the Irtysh River. These territories were inhabited by dynamic, nomadic Turkic communities. Initially, depending on the territory, the Turks were engaged in agriculture, and with significant climatic changes, they switched to cattle breeding. To find pastures for animals, they were forced to roam. This circumstance predetermined the semi-nomadic life of the Turkic peoples.
- What ideas about the "homeland of the Turkic peoples" exist in historical science?
Scientists involved in the study and research Turkic history Claproth and Vamberi, relying on Chinese sources, attributed the foothills of the Altai Mountains to the “homeland of the Turkic peoples”. According to the well-known Turkologist Radlov, this territory covered the region of modern Mongolia to the east of Altai. Based on the similarity of the Turkic and Mongolian languages, Ramstedt assumed that the Turks originated from Mongolia. A well-known expert on Turkic history in Central Asia, Bartold, also attributed the region on the territory of Mongolia to the homeland of the Turkic peoples. Today, these views are outdated, and the territory in question needs to be expanded. Linguistic and archaeological research shows that the homeland of the Turkic peoples stretches west of the Altai Mountains. According to the famous Turkologist Nemeth, the homeland of the Turkic peoples should be sought on the territory of modern Kazakhstan, namely between the Altai and Ural mountains. In the course of archaeological and ethnographic research conducted in the southern regions of Siberia and the region of the Altai Mountains, some results were obtained related to the ancient territories of the settlement of the Turkic peoples. As noted in the work of Kiselev "The Ancient History of Siberia" (1951), "cave painting" and archaeological finds, discovered to the north of Lake Baikal, at the source of the Lena River and the Semirechye region, reflect the ethnic features of these places, preserved from ancient times. According to historical sources, the first settlements of the Turkic communities were in the region of the Altai Mountains. The Turks, living between the Tien Shan and the Altai mountains, were ranked among the Altai peoples.
- Why were the Turks living in Central Asia forced to migrate?
The Turkic peoples who inhabited the territories of Central Asia were forced to leave these lands due to changes in the geographical and social conditions of life. The Turks founded many independent states in the new territories. It is not known for certain what period the first migration flows of the Turks date from, but it is believed that it covers the beginning of the first millennium BC. As a result of a major migration, the Turks, passing through the south of the Caspian Sea and the Iranian Highlands (some of them remained in Iran), descended into Mesopotamia, and from there invaded Syria, Egypt, Anatolia and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Here, in different periods of history, independent Turkic states were founded: the Seljuk State, the Seljuk Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey. By the end of the 4th century, the Turks, having passed through the north of the Caspian Sea, from Northeast Asia migrated to Eastern Europe. Over time, they settled in Central Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula and the Danube River Valley. In these territories, Turkic states were also subsequently established. The movement of the Turkic peoples to the east, which began in the 2500s BC, continued for a long time with certain interruptions. The Turks who settled in the modern regions of China - Shaanxi and Gansu - brought their culture and civilization to these lands and for a long time held power in China in their hands. The Shang Dynasty, which founded the Shang State, was destroyed by the Zhou (Chow) Dynasty, descended from a Turkic family (1050-247 BC). Over time, gaining strength, the Zhou dynasty founded a political union, which is considered the beginning Chinese history. The Turks who migrated north settled in the fertile pastures of Siberia. However, there is no exact information about when the Yakut and Chuvash Turks came to these territories. The movement of Turkic tribes from Central Asia began in the first centuries of history and continued until the end of the Middle Ages. Some Turks did not leave their homeland at all and lived in the valleys of the Syr Darya, Amu Darya, Ili, Irtysh, Tarim and Shu rivers. Over time, large states were formed on these lands, which demonstrated significant development in the cultural and civilizational sense.
What tribes can be divided into Turkic communities in terms of geography, historical development, features of dialects and adverbs?
In this regard, several Turkic tribes can be distinguished. Muhammad al-Kashgari in the "Collection of Turkic Dialects", speaking about the Turkic peoples in the 11th century, provides information about such tribes as the Oguzes, Kipchaks, Uighurs, Karluks, Kirghiz, Yagma, Bulgars, Bashkirs, etc. The most numerous of them were the tribes of the Oghuz and Kipchaks. After the second half of the 11th century, the Oguzes from the tribes that inhabited the Syr Darya valleys migrated to Western Asia and Anatolia, and the Kipchaks from the Irtysh River basin migrated en masse to the lowlands in the north of the Caspian and Black Seas. Part of the Bulgars descended in the VI century on the territory of modern Bulgaria. Despite multidirectional migration flows, a significant part of the Turkic tribal unions remained in Central Asia. This historical fact important from the point of view of the formation and current structure of the Turkic communities. The Oghuz tribe became the basis for a large group known as the "Western Turks". The Kipchaks also formed a numerous community, adding other Turkic peoples, which inhabited the territories stretching from the north of the Black Sea to the confluence of the Danube. Consequently, the Kipchaks became the basis for the group known today as the "Eastern European Turks". The third group is formed by the "Eastern Turks" or "Turks of Turkestan", formed as a result of the merger of the Chagatai and Uzbek uluses. This community was formed by others Turkic tribes remaining in Central Asia. It also included groups of Kipchaks who later returned to Turkestan. The fourth group includes the Turks of Siberia and Altai. Various tribes of Western Siberia and Altai are predominantly Turks of Kipchak or Kirghiz origin.
- What is the social organization of the Turkic peoples?
With the unification of families and clans, the tribes of the Turkic peoples were formed. To denote the union of tribes, the concept of "tribal union" ("bodun") was used. The state, created on the basis of the unification of tribal unions, was called "il" ("il"). At the head of the ils was the “khan”. With their unification, "khanates", "kaganates" were created. The equivalent of the term "people" in the ancient Turkic language was the category "kyun" ("kün"). At the head of the state was a kagan, who commanded the troops and led the “kurultai”, who met to discuss state affairs. Historical documents testify that the right to govern and power was granted to the Turkic Khagan by the god Tengri. On the monument erected in honor of Bilge Khan Bogyu, the inscription has been preserved: "I became a kagan, so Tengri ordered." The rights and powers of the kagan among the Turkic peoples were not unlimited. The kagan was considered the head of state. At the same time, the rulers of the tribes and khans acted at their own discretion in their own territories. There was a kind of freedom. The most influential representatives of the nobility participated in the meetings of the "kurultai" when discussing state affairs. Kurultai met twice a year. At the meetings of this body, such important issues as war, peace and trade were discussed, and laws were adopted for the orderly and fair administration of the state. The process of state administration among the Turkic peoples was carried out in accordance with the laws adopted in this way, as well as customs and traditions. The kagan's wife, who was given the title "khatun", assisted the kagan in discussing state affairs. In addition, a council of great servants was created to help the kagan. Usually they bore the title "bey". There were other positions and employees who were given the title of "yabgu", "shad", "tarkhan", "tudun" and "tamgadzhi". When the kagan died, a kurultai met, at which a new ruler was elected - one of the sons of the kagan. As a rule, the authority to manage the kaganate was transferred to the eldest son.
- What Turkic peoples are described in your work?
In the book we are talking about the Turkic peoples that inhabit various regions of the world. They made a permanent and long-term contribution to the history of mankind, therefore, when describing human history, considerable attention is paid to the Turkic peoples. After all, their migration flows flooded the territories of Central Europe, the Far East, and India. One cannot but agree with the statement: “Only linguistics can give the only true definition of the Turkic peoples. A Turk is someone who speaks the Turkic language. Other definitions are not comprehensive enough.”
- How do you define modern Turkic communities?
They can be classified as follows. Volga-Ural region: Tatars, Crimean Tatars, Bashkirs, Chuvashs, Krymchaks. Region of Central Asia: Karakalpaks, Uighurs. Region of Siberia: Yakuts, Dolgans, Tuvans, Khakasses, Altaians, Shors, Tofalars. Caucasus region: Balkars, Kumyks, Karachays, Nogais, Avars, Lezgins, Dargins, Laks, Tabasarans, Rutuls, Aguls, individual teips of Chechens, Ingush, Adygs, Abkhazians, Circassians, Abaza, Ossetians, Meskhetian Turks, Kabardians. Western region: Gagauz, Karaites.
The materials of InoSMI contain only assessments of foreign media and do not reflect the position of the editors of InoSMI.
Inner Asia and Southern Siberia - small homeland Turks, this is the territorial "patch", which over time has grown into a thousand-kilometer territory on a global scale. The geographical composition of the area of the Turkic peoples took place, in fact, over two millennia. The Proto-Turks lived in the trap of the Volga as early as the III-II millennium BC, they constantly migrated. Ancient Turkic "Scythians" and Huns" were also an integral part of the Ancient Turkic Khaganate. Thanks to their ritual structures, today we can get acquainted with the works of ancient early Slavic culture and art - this is precisely the Turkic heritage.
The Turks were traditionally engaged in nomadic pastoralism, in addition, they mined and processed iron. Leading a sedentary and semi-nomadic way of life, the Turks in the Central Asian interfluve in the VI century formed Turkestan. Existing in Central Asia from 552 to 745, the Turkic Khaganate in 603 was divided into two independent Khaganates, one of which included modern Kazakhstan and the lands of East Turkestan, and the other was the territory that included present-day Mongolia, Northern China and Southern Siberia.
The first, Western, Khaganate ceased to exist half a century later, conquered by the Eastern Turks. The leader of the Turgeshes, Uchelik, founded a new state of the Türks - the Turgesh Khaganate.
Subsequently, the Bulgars, Kyiv princes Svyatoslav and Yaroslav were engaged in the combat "formatting" of the Turkic ethnos. The Pechenegs, who devastated the southern Russian steppes with fire and sword, were replaced by the Polovtsy, they were defeated by the Mongol-Tatars ... Partly the Golden Horde (Mongol Empire) was a Turkic state, which later disintegrated into autonomous khanates.
There were many other significant events in the history of the Turks, among which the most significant is the formation of the Ottoman Empire, which was facilitated by the conquests of the Ottoman Turks, who captured in the XIII - XVI centuries lands of Europe, Asia and Africa. After the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which began in the 17th century, Peter's Russia swallowed up most of the former Golden Horde lands with Turkic states. Already in the 19th century, East Transcaucasian khanates joined Russia. After Central Asia, the Kazakh and Kokand khanates, together with the Emirate of Bukhara, became part of Russia, the Mikin and Khiva khanates, together with the Ottoman Empire, were the only conglomerate of Turkic states.
ABSTRACT
Altai - the center of the universe of the Turkic peoples
Introduction
The fact that Altai is the great ancestral home of all modern Turkic peoples, and in a broad sense of the peoples of the entire Altai language family.
The relevance of my topic lies in the fact that the culture of any nation is based on its national characteristics. Every person should know their origins, customs, traditions. But also the traditions and customs of other peoples confidently enter our lives, this suggests that we should know the culture of other peoples no less than our own. And just in this work, the goal is revealed, to tell about the Turkic peoples of the Altai Territory, about their culture and history in general. In this regard, the tasks are the general characteristics of the Turkic and Altai people, their history, culture and worldview. The object of my research is the Altai Territory, and the subject is the Turkic peoples. The research tools for the tasks were the study of writers and work on the Internet.
In the Altai Territory in 552, the ancient Turks created their first state - the great Turkic Khaganate, which united Northern Asia and Eastern Europe, laying the foundations of the Eurasian statehood and civilization, a state in which your direct ancestors - the people of the Tatars - thirty Turkic tribes and the Hun-Bulgarians played a significant role.
In honor of the celebration of the 250th anniversary of the voluntary entry of the Altai people into the Russian state, dear Mintimer Sharipovich, being the President of Tatarstan, presented a memorial sign "Altai - the heart of Eurasia". It is located at the very entrance to the Republic of Altai on the banks of the Katun River near the sacred mountain Baburgan.
That is why it is so significant and memorable for all of us, Russians, the creation and construction of the sign "Altai - the heart of Eurasia" - a kind of symbol of recognition of the Altai Republic not only as the ancestral home of all Turkic ethnic groups, but also being part of the modern republics of the Russian Federation. Altai played a huge unifying role in the history of the peoples of our country from the Far East to the Volga and the Urals, the Danube and the Carpathians. Further development through a series of successive eras from the Hunnic-Bulgarian, Horde to Russian had, as our joint history confirmed, the most favorable impact on the formation, formation and development of all our peoples.
On the commemorative sign made by specialists of Tatarstan, the following is carved: “We erected this commemorative sign in Altai - the “center of the universe”, at the place where our ancient ancestors gathered to resolve state affairs, from where the batyrs went on argamaks on campaigns, the people organized holidays and competitions in honor of famous events. This is where the Turkic civilization originated. The message to descendants is carved on six pedestals along the perimeter of the sign in Tatar, Altaic, English, Japanese, Korean, Persian and Turkish.
The Republic of Altai is a stable, sort of a model region, where Turks and Slavs, Russians and Altaians, representatives of other large and small ethnic groups live in peace and harmony for 2.5 centuries. As a result, a dual cultural-civilizational symbiosis has developed and is being strengthened from generation to generation, as you have in Tatarstan: “Live yourself and let others live!” this is the credo of our Altai, Siberian, Russian coexistence and cooperation. That's why respect for each other, languages and cultures, traditions and customs, spiritual values in our people, as they say, in the blood. We are open for friendship and cooperation with everyone who comes to us with a good heart and pure thoughts. In recent years, the Republic of Altai has significantly expanded cooperation not only with neighbors Siberian regions Russia, but also with adjacent territories of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China.
1. general characteristics representatives of the Turkic and Altaic peoples of Russia
Representatives of the Turkic group of the peoples of Russia, who today live mainly in the Volga region, the Urals, Southern Siberia and the Altai Territory and represent quite original, close-knit national communities, due to the peculiarities of the historical past, do not differ so sharply from each other in their ethno-psychological characteristics and have much more similarities compared to, for example, with the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus.
The most common and similar national psychological characteristics, and their representatives, influencing interethnic relations, are:
¾ acute national pride, a special sense of awareness of one's national identity;
¾ unpretentiousness and unpretentiousness in everyday life and in the performance of professional and everyday duties;
¾ high feeling responsibility to the team, colleagues and manager;
¾ discipline, diligence and perseverance in the performance of any kind of activity;
¾ sharp directness of judgments, openness and clarity in interaction and communication with representatives of one's own and other ethnic communities, striving for equal relations;
¾ group, national and tribal cohesion;
¾ with a poor knowledge of the Russian language, they have a certain shyness and constraint in communicating with representatives of other ethnic communities, some passivity, a desire to be satisfied with communication in their national environment.
2. Brief history of the Turkic people
Turkic Altaic population national
One of the traditional occupations of the Turks was nomadic cattle breeding, as well as the extraction and processing of iron.
The ethnic history of the proto-Turkic substratum is marked by the synthesis of two population groups: the first formed to the west of the Volga, in the 5th-8th millennium BC, in the course of centuries-old migrations in the eastern and southern directions, became the predominant population of the Volga region and Kazakhstan, Altai and the Upper Yenisei valley. And the second group, which appeared in the steppes east of the Yenisei later, had an intra-Asian origin.
The history of interaction and merging of both groups of the ancient population over the course of two thousand years is such a process during which ethnic consolidation was carried out and Turkic-speaking peoples were formed. ethnic communities. It was from among these closely related tribes that in the 2nd millennium BC. the modern Turkic peoples of Russia and adjacent territories stood out.
D.G. Savinov - he believed that they, "gradually modernizing and mutually penetrating each other, became the common property of the culture of numerous groups of the population that were part of the Ancient Turkic Khaganate."
From the 6th century AD the region in the middle reaches of the Syr Darya and the Chu River became known as Turkestan. The toponym is based on the ethnonym “tur”, which was the common tribal name of the ancient nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples of Central Asia. The nomadic type of state for many centuries was the predominant form of organization of power in the Asian steppes. Nomadic states, replacing each other, existed in Eurasia from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. until the 17th century.
In 552-745, there was a Turkic Khaganate in Central Asia, which in 603 broke up into two parts: the Eastern and Western Khaganates. The Western Khaganate included the territory of Central Asia, the steppes of modern Kazakhstan and East Turkestan. The Eastern Khaganate included the modern territories of Mongolia, northern China and southern Siberia. In 658, the Western Khaganate fell under the blows of the Eastern Turks. In 698, the leader of the Türgesh tribal union, Uchelik, founded a new Turkic state, the Turgesh Khaganate (698-766).
IN V-VIII centuries Turkic people who came to Europe nomadic tribes the Bulgars founded a number of states, of which the Danube Bulgaria in the Balkans and the Volga Bulgaria in the Volga and Kama basins turned out to be the most durable. In 650-969, on the territory North Caucasus, the Volga region and the northeastern Black Sea region, the Khazar Khaganate existed. In the 960s. he was defeated by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav. Displaced in the second half of the 9th century by the Khazars, the Pechenegs settled in the northern Black Sea region and posed a great threat to Byzantium and the Old Russian state. In 1019, the Pechenegs were defeated by Grand Duke Yaroslav. In the 11th century, the Pechenegs in the southern Russian steppes were replaced by the Polovtsy, who were defeated and subjugated by the Mongols-Tatars in the 13th century. West Side Mongol Empire- The Golden Horde - became a predominantly Turkic state in terms of population. In the 15th-16th centuries, it broke up into several independent khanates, on the basis of which a number of modern Turkic-speaking peoples were formed. Tamerlane at the end of the XIV century creates his empire in Central Asia, which, however, with his death (140) quickly disintegrates.
In the early Middle Ages, a sedentary and semi-nomadic Turkic-speaking population was formed on the territory of the Central Asian interfluve, which was in close contact with the Iranian-speaking Sogdian, Khorezmian and Bactrian populations. Active processes of interaction and mutual influence led to the Turkic-Iranian symbiosis.
The penetration of the Turks into the territory of Western Asia (Transcaucasia, Azerbaijan, Anatolia) began in the middle of the 11th century AD. (Seljuks). The invasion of these Turks was accompanied by the destruction and devastation of many Transcaucasian cities. As a result of the conquests of territories in Europe, Asia and Africa by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th-16th centuries, a huge Ottoman Empire was formed, but from the 17th century it began to decline. Having assimilated the majority of the local population, the Ottomans became the ethnic majority in Asia Minor. IN XVI-XVIII centuries at first Russian state, and then, after the reforms of Peter I, the Russian Empire includes most of the lands of the former Golden Horde, on which the Turkic states existed (Kazan Khanate, Astrakhan Khanate, Siberian Khanate, Crimean Khanate, Nogai Horde. At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia annexed a number of Azerbaijani khanates of Eastern Transcaucasia. At the same time, China annexed the Dzungar Khanate, depleted after the war with the Kazakhs. After the annexation of the territories of Central Asia to Russia, and the Kazakh Khanate and the Kokand Khanate, the Ottoman Empire, along with the Khiva Khanate, remained the only Turkic states.
Altaians - in a broad sense, the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Soviet Altai and Kuznetsk Ala-Tau. Historically, the Altaians were divided into two main groups:
.Northern Altaians: Tubalars, Chelkans, or Lebedints, Kumandins, Shors
.Southern Altaians: in fact, Altaians or Altai-Kizhi Telengits, Teleuts.
The total number of 47700 people. In the old literature and documents, the Northern Altaians were called "black Tatars", with the exception of the Shors, who were called Kuznetsk, Mras, Kondom Tatars. The Southern Altaians were incorrectly called "Kalmyks" - mountainous, frontier, white, Biysk, Altai. By origin, the Southern Altaians are a complex tribal conglomerate formed on the ancient Turkic ethnic base, supplemented by later Turkic and Mongolian elements that penetrated Altai in the 13th-17th centuries. This process in Altai took place under twofold Mongol influence. The Northern Altaians are basically a mixture of Finno-Ugric, Samoyedic and Paleo-Asiatic elements, which were influenced by the ancient Turks of the Sayano-Altai Highlands even in the pre-Mongol era. Ethnographic features The Northern Altaians were formed on the basis of taiga hunting on foot in combination with hoe farming and gathering. Among the Southern Altaians, they were created on the basis of nomadic cattle breeding in combination with hunting.
Most of the Altaians, with the exception of the Shors and Teleuts, are united in the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Region and consolidated into a single socialist nation. During the years of Soviet power, a radical change occurred in the economy and culture of the Altaians. The basis of the economy of the Altaians is socialist animal husbandry with subsidiary farming, beekeeping, hunting fur trade and the collection of pine nuts. Some Altaians work in industry. In Soviet times, a national intelligentsia also appeared.
Winter dwellings - a log hut of the Russian type, which is increasingly spreading on collective farms, in some places a wooden log yurt of a hexagonal shape, on the Chuya River - a round lattice-felt yurt. Summer dwelling is the same yurt or conical hut, covered with birch bark or larch bark. A common winter national dress is a sheepskin coat of Mongolian cut, wrapped in the left hollow up and belted. Shatsk is round sheepskin, the top is covered with fabric or sewn from the paws of a valuable animal, with a brush of colored silk threads on the crown. Boots with a wide top on a soft sole. Women wear a skirt and a short Russian-style jacket, but with an Altai collar: wide, turn-down, decorated with rows of mother-of-pearl and glass colored buttons. Now clothes of Russian urban cut are becoming more and more widespread. Almost the only means of transportation for the Altaians for many centuries were riding and pack horses, now automobile and horse-drawn transport is widespread.
IN social order The Altaians, until the final elimination of the exploiting classes, retained tribal remnants: exogamous patriarchal clans “sook” and customs associated with them, intertwined with patriarchal-feudal relations that were influenced by the capitalist forms of the Russian economy. Family relations are now characterized by the complete disappearance of patriarchal customs, which reflected the formerly subordinate position of women, and the strengthening of the Soviet family. Women now play a prominent role in industrial, social and political life. Significantly weakened the influence of religious cults. Literacy among the Altaians, which was almost non-existent before the Great October Socialist Revolution, now reaches 90 percent; elementary, partially and secondary schools work in their native language - Altai; writing based on the Russian alphabet. There are national teaching staff with higher education. Literature and theater with national and translated repertoire have been created, and folklore is successfully developing.
3. Population of the Altai Territory
In terms of population, the Altai Territory is one of the largest regions in the USSR. According to the 1939 census, the region's population was 2,520,000 people. The average population density is about 9 people per 1 sq. km. km. The bulk of the population is concentrated in the forest-steppe and steppe parts, where in some areas the density of the rural population exceeds 20 people per 1 sq. km. km. The least populated is the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Region, which makes up one third of the region's territory. About 7 percent of the population lives here.
The predominant mass of the population of the Altai Territory are Russians, who began to populate the region already in late XVII and early 18th centuries. Separate Russian settlements arose somewhat earlier. The next largest national group is the Ukrainians. Relocated here to late XIX and the beginning of the 20th century. Chuvash and Kazakhs live in small numbers in the region. In the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Region, the Altaians are the indigenous population.
In 1939, the rural population prevailed in the region - only 16 percent of the total population lived in cities. The rapid industrial development of the Altai Territory during the Patriotic War and the post-war Stalinist five-year plan caused a significant increase in the urban population. The population of the city of Barnaul has grown especially strongly. The small station settlement of Rubtsovsk has turned over the years into a major industrial center; the young town of Chesnokovka, a major railway junction at the intersection of the Tomsk railway and the South Siberian Railway under construction. In connection with the growth of industry in rural areas, a number of villages have been transformed into workers' settlements. In 1949, there were 8 cities and 10 urban-type settlements in the region.
During the years of Soviet power, and especially during the Great Patriotic War and the post-war five-year plan, the appearance of the Altai cities has changed dramatically. They are well-maintained, enriched with residential buildings and administrative buildings. modern type. Many streets and squares are covered with stone pavement or asphalt. From year to year in the Altai cities the area of green spaces increases, and gardens, parks, boulevards are broken not only in the central part of the cities, but also on the outskirts that were empty earlier. In Barnaul, water supply and sewerage were installed, a tram was launched, a bus service was organized, 4 stadiums were built. Bus lines have been set up in Biysk and Rubtsovsk. The number of city and countryside workers and employees is growing rapidly. In 1926, they barely made up 8 percent of the working population in the Altai Territory, and in 1939 - 42.4 percent. On the eve of the revolution, only 400 engineers and technicians worked in Altai, and in 1948 only in industrial and construction companies there were 9,000 of them.
The Altai village was also unrecognizably transformed as a result of the victory of the collective farm system. And in the Altai Territory there are many collective-farm settlements with electricity, radio centers, comfortable clubs, multi-room urban-type houses. In 1949, a nationwide movement for the transformation of villages was launched in the region. Clubs, reading rooms, medical centers, maternity hospitals for collective farmers, teachers, specialists are being built in rural areas. Agriculture. All construction is carried out according to standard projects. Works on electrification and radiofication of the village were widely developed. Before the Great October Socialist Revolution, there were only 21 agronomists in the entire region. Now 2,000 agronomists, agro forest reclamators and land surveyors, 2,000 veterinarians and livestock specialists work here. New professions appeared in the village, about which the pre-revolutionary peasant had no idea. In 1949, more than 20,000 tractor drivers, more than 8,000 combine operators, and more than 4,000 drivers worked in the countryside.
4. Culture and worldview of the Turkic people
In the period of antiquity and the Middle Ages, ethno-cultural traditions were formed and successively consolidated, which, often having different origins, gradually formed features that, to one degree or another, are inherent in all Turkic-speaking ethnic groups. The most intensive formation of such stereotypes took place in the ancient Turkic time, that is, in the second half of the 1st millennium AD. Then the optimal forms of economic activity were determined - nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding, in general, an economic and cultural type was formed. traditional dwelling and clothing, vehicles, food, jewelry, etc., spiritual culture, folk ethics, social and family organization, fine arts and folklore have acquired a certain completeness. The highest cultural achievement was the creation of their own writing, which spread from their Central Asian homeland Altai, Mongolia, the Upper Yenisei to the Don and the North Caucasus.
The religion of the ancient Turks was based on the cult of Heaven - Tengri, among its modern designations, the conditional name - Tengrism stands out. The Turks had no idea about the appearance of Tengri. According to ancient beliefs, the world is divided into 3 layers: the upper one was depicted as an outer large circle, the middle one was depicted as a middle square, the lower one was depicted as an inner small circle.
It was believed that initially Heaven and Earth were merged, forming chaos. Then they split up: a clear-clear Sky appeared from above, and a brown earth appeared below. Between them the sons of men arose. This version was mentioned on steles in honor of Kul-tegin and Bilge-kagan.
There was also a cult of the wolf: many Turkic peoples still have legends that they are descended from this predator. The cult was partially preserved even among those peoples who adopted a different faith. Images of the wolf existed in the symbols of many Turkic states. The image of a wolf is also present on the national flag of the Gagauz.
In Turkic mythical traditions, legends and fairy tales, as well as in beliefs, customs, rituals and folk holidays the wolf acts as a totemic patron, protector and ancestor
The cult of ancestors was also developed. There was polytheism with the deification of the forces of nature, which was preserved in the folklore of all Turkic peoples.
Conclusion
The theme of my research was the goal to tell about the Turkic peoples of the Altai Territory. The significance lies in the fact that each person knows about his origin, about his traditions and culture in general.
Turkic peoples are peoples who speak Turkic languages, and these are Azerbaijanis, Altaians (Altai-Kizhi), Afshars, Balkars, Bashkirs, Gagauz, Dolgans, Qajars, Kazakhs, Karagas, Karakalpaks, Karapapahis, Karachais, Kashkais, Kirghiz, Kumyks, Nogais, Tatars, Tofs, Tuvans , Turks, Turkmens, Uzbeks, Uighurs, Khakasses, Chuvashs, Chulyms, Shors, Yakuts. From the speech of the Turkic tribes, the Turkish language originates, from their common name - the name of the Turkish nation.
The Turks are the generalized name of the ethno-linguistic group of the Turkic peoples. Geographically, the Turks are scattered over a vast territory, which occupies about a quarter of the entire Eurasia. The ancestral home of the Turks is Central Asia, and the first mention of the ethnonym "Turk" dates back to the 6th century AD. and it is connected with the name of the Kök Türks, who, under the leadership of the Ashina clan, created the Türkic Kaganate.
Although the Turks are not historically a single ethnic group, but include not only kindred, but also assimilated peoples of Eurasia, nevertheless, the Turkic peoples are a single ethno-cultural whole. And according to anthropological features, one can single out the Turks, who belong to caucasian race, and to the Mongoloid, but most often there is a transitional type belonging to the Turanian race.
In world history The Turks are known, first of all, as unsurpassed warriors, founders of states and empires, and skilled cattle breeders.
Altai is the ancestral home of all modern Turkic peoples of the world, where in 552 BC. the ancient Turks created their own state - the Khaganate. Here, the original language of the Turks was formed, which became widespread among all the peoples of the kaganate due to the appearance of writing in connection with the statehood of the Turks, known today as the “Orkhon-Yenisei runic writing”. All this led to the emergence in the modern scientific world of the term "Altaic family" of languages (which includes 5 large groups: Turkic languages, Mongolian languages, Tungus-Manchu languages, in the maximum version also the Korean language and the Japanese-Ryukyu languages, kinship with the last two groups is hypothetical) and made it possible to establish itself in the world science of the scientific direction - Altaistics. Altai, due to its geopolitical location - the center of Eurasia - in different historical epochs united different ethnic groups and cultures.
The Republic of Altai is a stable, sort of a model region, where Turks and Slavs, Russians and Altaians, representatives of other large and small ethnic groups live in peace and harmony for 2.5 centuries. As a result, a dual cultural-civilizational symbiosis has developed and is being strengthened from generation to generation, as you have in Tatarstan: “Live yourself and let others live!” - this is the credo of the Altai, Siberian, Russian coexistence, cooperation. That's why respect for each other, languages and cultures, traditions and customs, spiritual values in our people, as they say, in the blood. We are open for friendship and cooperation with everyone who comes to us with a good heart and pure thoughts. In recent years, the Republic of Altai has significantly expanded cooperation not only with the neighboring Siberian regions of Russia, but also with the adjacent territories of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China.
List of sources used
1. Turkic peoples [Electronic resource] // Wikipedia free encyclopedia. - Access mode: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0% A2% D1% 8E % D1% 80% D0% BA
2.Vavilov S.I. / Altai region. Second volume. / S.I. Vavilov. - State scientific publishing house "Big soviet encyclopedia", 1950. - 152 p.
Krysko V.I. / Ethnic psychology / V.I. Krasko - Academy / M, 2002 - 143 p.
Türks turkology ethnology. Who are the Turks - origin and general information. [Electronic resource] // Turkportal - Access mode: http://turkportal.ru/
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The ancient Turks are the ancestors of many modern Turkic peoples, including the Tatars. The Turks roamed the Great Steppe (Dashti-Kypchak) in the expanses of Eurasia. Here they conducted their economic activities, on these lands they created their own states. The Volga-Ural region, located on the periphery of the Great Steppe, has long been inhabited by Finno-Ugric and Turkic tribes. In the second century AD, other Turkic tribes also migrated here from Central Asia, known in history as the Huns. In the 4th century, the Huns occupied the Black Sea region, then invaded Central Europe. But, over time, the Hun union of tribes broke up and most of the Huns returned to the Black Sea region, joining other local Turks.
The Turkic Khaganate, created by the Turks of Central Asia, existed for about two hundred years. Among the peoples of this kaganate, written sources point to the Tatars. It is noted that this is a very numerous Turkic people. The tribal association of the Tatars, located on the territory of modern Mongolia, included 70 thousand families. The Arab historian pointed out that due to their exceptional greatness and authority, other tribes also united under this name. Other historians also reported about the Tatars living on the banks of the Irtysh River. In frequent military clashes, the opponents of the Tatars usually turned out to be the Chinese and Mongols. There is no doubt that the Tatars were Turks, and in this sense they are close relatives (and to a certain extent can also be attributed to the ancestors) of the modern Turkic peoples.
After the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate, the Khazar Khaganate came into power. The possession of the kaganate extended to the Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Crimea. The Khazars were an association of Turkic tribes and peoples and "were one of the remarkable peoples of that era" (L. N. Gumilyov). Exceptional religious tolerance flourished in this state. For example, in the capital of the state, Itil, located not far from the mouth of the Volga, there were Muslim mosques, prayer houses of Christians and Jews. Seven equal judges worked: two Muslims, a Jew, a Christian and one pagan. Each of them resolved the lawsuits of people of the same religion as him. The Khazars were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, agriculture and gardening, and in the cities - crafts. The capital of the kaganate was not only a center of handicrafts, but also of international trade.
In the years of its heyday, Khazaria was a powerful state, and it was not for nothing that the Caspian Sea was called the Khazar Sea. However, the military actions of external enemies weakened the state. The attacks of the troops of the Arab Caliphate, the principality of Kyiv and the hostile policy of Byzantium turned out to be especially tangible. All this led to the fact that at the end of the tenth century Khazaria ceased to exist as an independent state. One of the main components of the Khazar people were the Bulgars. Some historians of the past pointed out that the Scythians, Bulgars and Khazars are one and the same people. Others believe that the Bulgars are the Huns. They are also mentioned as Kipchaks, as Caucasian and North Caucasian tribes. In any case, the Bulgar Turks have been known from written sources for almost two thousand years. There are many interpretations of the word "Bulgar". According to one of them, 6ulgars are river people or people associated with fishing. According to other versions, “Bulgars” can mean: “mixed, consisting of many elements”, “rebels, rebels”, “wise men, thinkers”, etc. The Bulgars had their own state formation - Great Bulgaria in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, with the capital - r. Phanagoria, on the Taman Peninsula. This state included lands from the Dnieper to the Kuban, part of the North Caucasus and the steppe expanses between the Caspian and Azov seas. Once the Caucasus Mountains were also called the chain of the Bulgar mountains. The Azov Bulgaria was a peaceful state, and often fell into dependence on the Turkic Khaganate and Khazaria. The state reached its greatest prosperity under the rule of Kubrat Khan, who managed to unite the Bulgars and other Turkic tribes. This khan was a wise ruler who achieved remarkable success in ensuring a peaceful life for his fellow citizens. During his reign, Bulgar cities grew, crafts developed. The state received international recognition, relations with geographic neighbors were relatively stable.
The position of the state deteriorated sharply after the death of Kubrat Khan in the middle of the 7th century, and the political and military pressure of Khazaria on Bulgaria intensified. Under these conditions, there were several cases of resettlement of significant masses of Bulgars to other regions. One group of Bulgars headed by Prince Asparukh moved west and settled on the banks of the Danube. A large group of Bulgars, led by the son of Kubrat Kodrak, went to the middle Volga region.
The Bulgars who remained in the Sea of Azov ended up as part of Khazaria along with the Lower Volga Bulgars-Saksins and with other Turks of the state. However, this did not bring them eternal peace. In the 20s of the 7th century, Khazaria was attacked by the Arabs, during which the large Bulgarian cities of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov were captured and burned. Ten years later, the Arabs repeated their campaign, this time they plundered the Bulgar lands in the vicinity of the Terek and Kuban rivers, captured 20 thousand Barsils (the travelers of the century as part of the Bulgar people singled out Barsils, Esegels and, in fact, Buggars). All this caused another massive campaign of the Bulgar population to their fellow tribesmen in the Volga region. Subsequently, the defeat of Khazaria was accompanied by other cases of Bulgar migration to the middle and upper reaches of the Itil (the Itil River, in the understanding of that time, began with the Belaya River, included part of the Kama and then the Volga).
Thus, mass and small migrations of the Bulgars to the Volga-Ural region took place. The choice of the resettlement area is quite understandable. Here several centuries ago the Huns lived and their descendants continued to live, as well as other Turkic tribes. From this point of view, these places were the historical homeland of ancestors for certain Turkic tribes. In addition, the Turkic peoples of the middle and lower Volga region maintained constant close ties with the kindred peoples of the Caucasus and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov; the developed nomadic economy more than once led to the mixing of different Turkic tribes. That's why. the strengthening of the Bulgar element in the middle Volga region was quite an ordinary phenomenon.
The increase in the Bulgar population in these areas led to the fact that it was the Bulgars who became the main forming element of the Tatar people, formed in the Volga-Ural region. It should be noted, however, that no more or less big people cannot trace its genealogy from only one single tribe. And the Tatar people in this sense is not an exception, among its ancestors one could name more than one tribe, and also indicate more than one influence (including Finno-Ugric). However, it is the Bulgars that should be recognized as the main element in the composition of the Tatar people.
Over time, the Turkic-Bulgarian tribes began to make up a fairly large population in this region. If, moreover, they take into account their historical experience state building, then there is nothing surprising in the fact that the state of Great Bulgaria (Volga Bulgaria) soon arose here. IN initial period of its existence, Bulgaria in the Volga region was, as it were, a union of relatively independent regions, vassal dependent on Khazaria. But, in the second half of the 10th century, the supremacy of a single prince was already recognized by all specific rulers. Has developed general system, paying taxes to the common treasury of a single state. By the time of the collapse of Khazaria, Great Bulgaria was a fully formed single state, its borders were recognized by neighboring states and peoples. In the future, the zone of political and economic influence of Bulgaria extended from the Oka to the Yaik (Urals). The lands of Bulgaria included areas from the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama to the Yaik and the lower reaches of the Volga. The Khazar Sea became known as the Bular Sea. “Atil is a river in the region of the Kipchaks, it flows into the Bulgar Sea,” wrote Mahmud Kashgari in the 11th century.
Great Bulgaria in the Volga region became a country of settled and semi-sedentary population and had a highly developed economy. In agriculture, the Bulgars used iron plowshares to plows already in the 10th century, the Bulgar Saban plow provided plowing with a layer turnover. The Bulgars used iron tools for agricultural production, grew more than 20 types of cultivated plants, were engaged in gardening, beekeeping, as well as hunting and fishing. Handicraft reached a high level for that time. The Bulgars were engaged in jewelry, leather, bone carving, metallurgical, pottery production. They were familiar with iron smelting, and began to use it in production. The Bulgars also used gold, silver, copper and their various alloys in their products. “The Bulgarian kingdom was one of the few states of medieval Europe, in which, in the shortest possible time, conditions were created for the high development of handicraft production in a number of industries” (A.P. Smirnov).
Since the 11th century, Great Bulgaria has occupied the position of the leading shopping center Of Eastern Europe. Trade relations developed with the closest neighbors - with the northern peoples, with the Russian principalities and with Scandinavia. Trade with Central Asia, with the Caucasus, with Persia, with the Baltics unfolded. The Bulgarian merchant fleet ensured the export and import of goods by waterways, and by land trade caravans went to Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The Bulgars exported fish, bread, timber, walrus teeth, furs, specially processed leather “Bulgari”, swords, chain mail, etc. From the Yellow Sea to Scandinavia, jewelry, leather and fur products of Bulgar craftsmen were known. The minting of own coins, begun in the 10th century, contributed to the further strengthening of the position of the Bulgarian state as a recognized center of trade between Europe and Asia.
Bulgars, in their bulk, adopted Islam as early as 825, i.e. almost 1200 years ago. The canons of Islam, with their call for spiritual and physical purity, for mercy, etc., found a special response among the Bulgars. The official adoption of Islam in the state has become a powerful factor in the consolidation of the people into a single organism. In 922 Almas Shilki, the ruler of the Great Bulgaria, received a delegation from the Baghdad Caliphate. A solemn prayer service was held in the central mosque of the capital of the state - in the city of Bulgape. Islam became the official state religion. This allowed Bulgaria to strengthen trade and economic relations with the developed Muslim states of that time. The position of Islam soon became very stable. Western European travelers of that time noted that the inhabitants of Bulgaria are a single people, "holding the law of Mukhammetov more firmly than anyone else." Within the framework of a single state, the formation of the nationality itself has also been basically completed. In any case, the Russian chronicles of the 11th century note here a single, Bulgar people.
Thus, the direct ancestors of modern Tatars were formed as a nationality in the Volga-Ural region. At the same time, they absorbed not only related Turkic tribes, but also partially local Finno-Ugric ones. The Bulgars more than once had to defend their lands from the encroachments of greedy robbers. The incessant attacks of the seekers of easy money forced the Bulgars even to move the capital; in the 12th century, the city of Bilyar, located at some distance from the main water artery - the Volga River, became the capital of the state. But, the most serious military trials fell on the lot of the Bulgar people in the XII century, which brought the Mongol invasion to the world.
Within three decades of the XIII century, the Mongols conquered a significant part of Asia and began their campaigns on the lands of Eastern Europe. The Bulgars, conducting intensive trade with Asian partners, were well aware of the danger posed by the Mongol army. They tried to create a united front, but their call for neighbors to unite in the face of a deadly threat fell on deaf ears. Eastern Europe met the Mongols not united, but disunited, divided into warring states (Central Europe made the same mistake). In 1223, the Mongols utterly defeated the combined forces of the Russian principalities and the Kipchak warriors on the Kalka River and sent part of their troops to Bulgaria. However, the Bulgars met the enemy on the distant approaches, near the Zhiguli. Using a skillful ambush system, the Bulgars, led by Ilgam Khan, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mongols, destroying up to 90% of the enemy troops. The remnants of the Mongol army retreated to the south, and “the land of the Kypchaks was freed from them; whoever escaped from them returned to his own land ”(Ibn al-Athir).
This victory brought peace to Eastern Europe for a while, and trade that had been suspended was resumed. Apparently, the Bulgars were well aware that the victory won was not final. They began active preparations for defense: cities and fortresses were fortified, huge earthen ramparts were poured in the area of the Yaik, Belaya rivers, etc. At the then level of technology, in such a short period of time, such work could be carried out only with a very high level of organization of the population. This serves as an additional confirmation of the fact that by this time the Bulgars were a single, close-knit people, united by a common idea, the desire to preserve their independence. Six years later, the Mongols attacked again, and this time the enemy failed to penetrate the main territory of Bulgaria. The authority of Bulgaria, as a real force capable of resisting the Mongol invasion, became especially high. Many peoples, primarily the Lower Volga Bulgars-Saksins, Cumans-Kipchaks began to move to the lands of Bulgaria, thereby contributing their share to the composition of the ancestors of modern Tatars.
In 1236 the Mongols made their third campaign against Bulgaria. The subjects of the country fought fiercely, defending their state. For a month and a half, the Bulgars selflessly defended the besieged capital - the city of Bilyar. However, the 50,000th army of the Bulgar Khan Gabdulla Ibn-Ilgam could not resist the onslaught of the 250,000th Mongol army for a long time. The capital has fallen. IN next year the western lands of Bulgaria were conquered, all fortifications and fortresses were destroyed. The Bulgars did not reconcile themselves to the defeat, the uprisings followed one after another. Bulgars almost 50 years of hostilities against the conquerors, which forced the latter to keep almost half of their troops on the territory of Bulgaria. However, it was not possible to restore the full independence of the state, the Bulgars became subjects of the new state - the Golden Horde.
Altai language family. As a result, linguistic classification, introduced in the 19th century, in the category of so-called. many peoples are included, to-rye before that they were not included in their composition. so-called. settled in Russia, the CIS, Turkey, China, Iran and other states. The Turks are Azerbaijanis, Altaians, Balkars, Bashkirs, Gagauz, Dolgans, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Karachais, Kirghiz, Kumyks, Nogais, Tatars, Teleuts, Tuvans, Turks, Turkmens, Uzbeks, Uighurs, Khakasses, Chuvashs, Shors, Yakuts, etc. In 1990, the number of Turks kov was 132.8 million people. According to World. Assembly of the so-called, in the world there are approx. 200 million people belonging to the Turks (2007). Approx. 30 T.S. numbering 12 million 750 thousand people. (2002).
Proto-Turkic are considered (Huns), whose movement to the west is noted in the end. 3 - beginning. 2nd century BC. At the beginning of a.d. Ogur tribes (cf. ) - ancestors - migrated to the west. direction. Proto-Bulgarians. groups as ethnic The community was formed long before the formation of the Turks themselves. tribes (Turkyuts). In the 2nd–4th centuries in the Urals, an unification of the nomadic tribes of the Huns took shape, moving into the middle. 4th c. on Z and laid the foundation , which marked the end of the centuries-old domination of the Iranian language. nomadic tribes of the Scythians, and opened the way to the movement to the 3rd Turkic language. nomads (in the 9th–10th centuries, the Pechenegs and , in the 11th century. ). Turk. tribes, primarily Onogurs-Bulgarians and Savirs (see. ), were part of the Hun federation. In the 5th c. The Turks called the horde that rallied around Prince Amin (Mongolian name meaning wolf). According to the legend, the Altai Turks - tukyu (turkut) - come from the west. Huns. In the 6th c. the Turks formed into a small people who lived in the east. slopes of Altai and Khangai. As a result of several successful wars (since 545), the Turks managed to subjugate all the steppes from Khingan (Northeast China) to Azov. seas. The state of the Turks was called Türk. Khaganate, which in 604 disintegrated into the West. and Vostoch. Turkic Khaganates. From Ser. 6th c. to the 30s 7th c. Bulgarians and Suvars were part of Türk., then West. Turk. kaganate. Bulgarian. the component is present in a number of so-called. Caucasus: Azerbaijanis, Balkars, Karachays, Kumyks. On the ruins of the first Turks. and other associations appeared Kimak, Uigur Khaganates. famous Turk. the Ashina clan was headed by the Khazars. unification of hordes (cf. ), who lived in the Caspian steppes. In the 11th century to Turk. dialects were spoken by many peoples from Marble. sea and slopes of the Carpathians to the Great Wall of China. Ancient so-called. were nomads, they subjugated many farmers. peoples who became their farmers. base. Orkhon-Yenisei runic inscriptions are the most important historical. and cultures. monuments (cf. , ). Turk. communities had a common cult of Tengrikhan - the god of the sky, the sun, a common cult of ancestors, as well as similarities in everyday life, clothing, methods of warfare; collection of information about the ancient Turks. tribes compiled in the 11th century. .
Mongol-Tatars. invasion of Eastern Europe in the 1220s–40s. set in motion masses of nomads. In the Eurasian steppes, the Kypchaks were defeated (the Kypchak steppe of the pre-Mongolian period is known as , it stretched from Altai to the Carpathians); conquered in 1236 . In the beginning. 1240s founded , it included Khorezm, the North. Caucasus, Crimea, Volga. Bulgaria, Urals, West. Siberia. The bulk of the population were Kypchaks, whose language was the state language. In the 1st floor. 15th c. formed late Golden Horde. ethnopolitical associations - Astrakhan., Kazan., Crimea., Siberia. khanates, Nogai Horde; in con. 15 - beginning. 16th centuries educated Kazakh. (in the composition of the Kazakhs historically formed the Senior, Middle, Junior zhuzes) and Uzbek. khanates. Their population consisted of Turkic tribes (Nogai, Kipchaks, Bashkirs, Kazakhs) and peoples (Kazan Tatars, Chuvashs), as well as Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordovians, Mari, Udmurts, Khanty, Mansi). During the existence of the khanates, the so-called. In particular, significant masses of Chuvash. population migrated to the territory of Bashkiria and to the West. Siberia, where the places were assimilated. Turks (Bashkirs, Siberian Tatars) and Kazan Tatars. migrants. All R. 16th century so-called. The Volga and Ural regions (Chuvash, Tatars, Bashkirs) became part of Rus. states, so-called. Siberia - in the 17th century, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and the Middle. Asia - in the 18-19 centuries. After construction in the 17th and 18th centuries there was a resettlement of the Chuvash, Tatar-Mishars, Kazan. Tatars and other peoples in the areas of the so-called. .
Unlike language material. and spiritual culture of the ancients. Chuvash (religion, including the pantheon, applied, musical, choreographic creativity, monumental and small forms of sculpture), with the exception of certain elements (for example, similarity. As a result, long interaction with a number of so-called, with their ethnic. In groups (primarily of the Tatar ethnic group), the Chuvash developed similar features that can be traced both in material and in spiritual culture.
Lit .: Bichurin N. Ya. Collection of information about the peoples who lived in Central Asia in ancient times. T. 1–2. M.–L., 1950; T. 3. M.–L., 1953; Klyashtorny S. G. Ancient Turkic runic monuments as a source on the history of Central Asia. M., 1964; Pletneva S. A. Nomads of the Middle Ages. M., 1982; Gumilyov L. N. Ancient Turks. M., 1993; Kakhovsky V. F. The origin of the Chuvash people. Ch., 2003; Ivanov V.P. Ethnic geography of the Chuvash people. Ch., 2005.
