Greek temples

Starting from the early period of ancient Greek history, from the VIII century. BC e., the primary task of building art is the construction of temples. All the achievements of Greek architecture of that time; constructive and decorative, associated with the construction of various places of worship. The planning structure of the temples was based on a residential building of the Mycenaean megaron type. The planning scheme of the temple, formed in the early period, formed the basis for the subsequent architecture of Greek temples, which is characterized by the surrounding of the main volume of the temple with a colonnade. Temples in the early period of ancient Greek history were usually built from unbaked bricks.

The simplest type of temple is antovy. It consisted of a rectangular hall - cella or naos, where a cult statue stood, illuminated by the rays of the rising sun through the entrance opening on the eastern facade and an entrance portico in two columns located between the protrusions of the longitudinal walls - ants. An altar for sacrifices was placed in front of the entrance. The entrance to the heroons - temples dedicated to deified heroes, was turned to the west - towards the "kingdom of shadows".

Later temple buildings were simple buildings with a longitudinal rectangular plan, with an inner space - a sanctuary (naos) and a front part (pronaos), bounded by walls and columns located:

In front of one of the facades (prostyle) - a four-column portico is advanced in relation to the ants,

On two opposite facades (amphiprostyle) - two end porticoes on opposite sides,

Or surrounding the building from all sides (peripter).

The types of temples were varied: with 4-, 6-, 8-column porticos pushed forward on one or two opposite end facades, during the archaic period, a peripter was formed, with a row of columns on four sides, or two (dipter) rows of columns.

The ancient Greek temple was always erected on a powerful stepped foundation and covered with a wooden sloping gable roof.

Temples become centers of political, cultural and economic ties. So, at the temple of Zeus in Olympia from 766 BC. e. The Olympic Games were held every four years.

The inner premises of the temple of the later periods of ancient Greek history, considered the place of residence of the god, were not used for the assembly of believers, the latter gathered only in front of the temple. The inner space of large temples was three-aisled, in the middle of them a large statue of a deity was placed. The scale of the interior was smaller than the scale of the facade, which emphasized the size of the statue. In the depths of the large temples there was a smaller hall, a treasury. In addition to a large number of rectangular ones, round temples were sometimes built, for example, round periptera.

Temples were usually grouped in a fenced area, where monumental entrance gates led. The complex of these buildings was gradually supplemented by an increasing number of sculptures and sacrificial altars. Athens, Olympia - the sanctuary of Zeus, Delphi - the sanctuary of Apollo, Priene, Selinunte, Poseidonia and all other cities had their own temple complexes, erected in the archaic and classical periods.

Types of Greek temples. 1 - peripter, 2 - pseudoperipter, 3 - pseudodipter, 4 - amphiprostyle, 5 - prostyle, 6 - temple in antah, 7 - tholos, 8 - monopter, 9 - dipter.

Without a doubt, the art of ancient Greece had the greatest influence on subsequent generations. Its calm and majestic beauty, harmony and clarity served as a model and source of inspiration for the later eras of cultural history.
Greek antiquity is called ANTIQUITY, Ancient Rome is also referred to antiquity.
It took several centuries before the Dorian tribes, who came from the north in the XII century. BC, to the VI century BC created a highly developed art. This was followed by three periods in the history of Greek art:
1) ARCHAIC, or ancient period, from about 600 to 480. BC, when the Greeks repelled the Persian invasion and, having freed their land from the threat of conquest, they again got the opportunity to create freely and calmly;
2) CLASSIC, or the heyday, - from 480 to 323. BC. - the year of the death of Alexander the Great, who conquered vast areas, very dissimilar in their cultures; this diversity of cultures was one of the reasons for the decline of classical Greek art;
3) HELLENISM(from the word "Greeks" - so the Greeks called themselves), or the late period, it ended in 30g. BC, when the Romans conquered Egypt, which was under Greek influence (in fact, they conquered Greece earlier, back in the 2nd century BC).

The greatest achievement of Greek building art was the TEMPLE.
The oldest ruins of temples date back to the archaic era (6th century BC), when instead of wood, yellowish limestone and white marble began to be used as a building material.
It is believed that the ancient dwelling of the Greeks, a rectangular building with two columns at the entrance, served as a prototype for the temple.
Usually the temple stood on a stepped base. It consisted of a room without windows, where there was a statue of a deity, the building was surrounded by one or two rows of columns. They supported the floor beams and the gable roof. In the semi-dark interior, only priests could visit the statue of the god, while the people saw the temple only from the outside. Obviously, therefore, the main attention was paid by the ancient Greeks to the beauty and harmony of the external appearance of the temple.

The construction of the temple was subject to certain rules. The dimensions, the ratio of parts and the number of columns were precisely established. Thus, the ORDER system was formed - the ratio between the parts of the ancient building.

The oldest of these was DORICA STYLE , which was formed already in the archaic era.
He was courageous, simple and powerful.
It got its name from the Doric tribes that created it.
The Doric column is heavy, a little thickened a little below the middle - it seemed to be slightly resounding under the weight of the bridging. The top of the column capital form two stone slabs; the bottom plate is round ( echinus), and the upper square ( abacus).
The tendency of the column upwards is emphasized by vertical grooves ( flutes). The ceiling, based on columns, is surrounded in its upper part around the entire perimeter of the temple by a strip of decoration - frieze. It consists of alternating plates: one has two vertical recesses ( triglyph), reliefs are usually placed on others ( metope).
Speakers run along the edge of the roof cornices; on both narrow sides of the temple, triangles are formed under the roof - gables, which were decorated with sculptures.
Roman architect Vitruvius I thought that the Doric order expresses the idea of ​​masculinity, the Ionic - femininity. Where ancient architects replaced columns with statues, transferring to them the function of a support, they placed male figures of Atlantes in Doric buildings, and in Ionic buildings - female figures of caryatids.
Today, the surviving parts of the temples are white: the paint that covered them crumbled over time. Once their friezes and cornices were painted red and blue.

	It so happened that time spared the oldest Doric temples, mainly outside of Greece. Several such temples have been preserved on the island of Sicily and in southern Italy. The most famous of them - Temple of the sea god Poseidon at Paestum(left), near Naples, which looks somewhat heavy and squat.	Temple of Athena on the island of Aegina, c. 500-480 AD BC (top center) And the pediment of the Parthenon in the 5th century. BC. (top right) built in the Doric style

To talk about the architecture of ancient Greece briefly, the most important thing is to describe the layout of cities, periods of development and styles. Next, highlight the most important thing in each period and state in simple words. What is done for you in the article. Plus examples with photos to make it clearer what I'm talking about. The last paragraph is a squeeze. Who is in a hurry - immediately there.

The principle of building cities or Greek mythology and its reflection in architecture

The architectural appearance of Ancient Hellas reflects the myths of the people who lived on its territory. In the mythology of Ancient Greece, the gods lived on Mount Olympus. And at the foot lived ordinary people. Cities (polises) were built on the same principle.

Where and how did mere mortals live?

The lower city was built around a natural or artificial hill. Craftsmen of the same profession lived compactly in quarters. There was always a trading square in the center, where they solved economic and administrative issues, gathering together. The place was called the agora.

Around the agora, public buildings were built for the council of the community (bouleuteria) like a modern city hall. For solemn events, pritanei were built. All kinds of entertainment clubs (leskhs), theaters, stadiums, parks were located here.

Gymnasiums and sports schools (palestra) had large complexes located nearby.

Where and how did the gods rest?

On a hill surrounded by the city, a temple was erected for the patron god. As a rule, the hills also had a protective function: they were well fortified in case of war. Such hills were called acropolises.

Temple of Aphaia on the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf

The most powerful city-states in that period were Athens, Sparta, Thebes and Corinth. They both cooperated and fought among themselves.

Archaic architecture: Greek order system

This period includes the VIII - VI centuries BC. These are the times when

• hosted the Olympic Games for the first time
• Homer wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey
• the Greeks captured Sicily, southern Italy and Thrace.

The achievements of Greek architecture of the archaic period are the creation and consistent application of order principles. The order is a post-and-beam system consisting of

• vertical columns and pilasters and
• horizontal ceilings (entablature).

This word did NOT come from the "order", but from the Latin ORDO- build, order. This principle arose as an important element of the architecture of a public building.

Doric order and its brutality

At the beginning of the archaic period, it was used Doric order. It got its name from the Dorian tribes living in the northern territories of the Greek metropolis.

Temples are heavy and squat, columns, simple, powerful, slightly thickened (Courageous). The upper part of the column - the capital - is formed by two stone slabs (the lower one is round, the upper one is square). Vertical grooves along create aspiration upwards.

Along the entire perimeter of the temple stretches a strip of decorations - a frieze. On the narrow sides of the temple under the roof, triangles are formed - pediments, which were decorated with sculptures. Once they were painted in red and blue, but the paint crumbled and now the temples are white.

The supporting structures of temples (columns and architraves) were not painted.

This is confirmed by excavations.

• Temple of Hera at Olympia
• temple of Aphaia (Afei) on the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf and others.

Ionic order: temple of the goddess Artemis

Ionic order characterized by lightness in proportions, decorativeness and grace. It was formed under the influence of the culture of the East in the rich trading cities of island and Asia Minor Greece. It began to be used at the end of the archaic period along with Doric.

The most famous is the temple of Artemis, always a young goddess of hunting and female chastity, who gives happiness in family life (architects Hersiphon and Metagenes) in Ephesus, built at the end of the 6th century. BC. - one of the 7 ancient wonders. Currently, it is the city of Selcuk in the south of the Turkish province of Izmir.

Ruins of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus and a model-reconstruction in the Miniatürk Park (Turkey)

Much attention was paid to landscape design around the temple. In the VI century BC. e. Greek architects achieved great success in the creation of architectural ensembles.

Classical period: the architecture of ancient Athens

classical period attributed to the 5th century BC. This is the time when philosophers lived

• Sophocles, Socrates, Democritus, Plato and
• the great healer Hippocrates, whose oath is still pronounced by doctors today.

The principle of city planning is preserved, but the buildings become lighter and more airy. The most famous monument of the classical period is athenian acropolis(photo clickable).

Athens Acropolis

How the goddess Athena became the mistress of Attica

The myth says that the patroness of warriors and artisans, the goddess Athena, stuck a spear into the land of Attica (region of Greece). An olive tree grew in this place, which she gave to people. She liked the gift so much that she was recognized as the sovereign, and the capital was named after her.

The heyday of Greek architecture began in the 5th century BC. and is inextricably linked with the name of the famous statesman Pericles. During his reign, grandiose construction was begun in Athens, namely on the fortified hill of the Acropolis.

A wide marble staircase led up the hill. To her right, on a dais, a small graceful temple was erected to the goddess of victory, Nike. Through the gate with columns the visitor got to the square. In the center stood a bronze statue of the patroness of the city - the goddess of wisdom, Athena.

The main building of the Acropolis is the temple dedicated to Athena - the Parthenon. It is also an excellent example of the Doric style. The names of its creators have been preserved - Iktin and Kallikrat. In the temple stood a colossal statue of Athena, created by Phidias.

Mansions of the goddess Athena

In 447 BC. e. work began on the Parthenon to replace the old temple, destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC. The Parthenon that we see today began precisely on the orders of Pericles.

The case was entrusted to the architects Iktinui Kallikart. Finishing was done by Phidias. Their task was to resurrect with their talent the strength, greatness and power of the pan-Hellenic state.

The entire temple complex was built of white marble. The Parthenon, the temple of the goddess Athena, is the main and most majestic.

It is recognized as the greatest achievement of architects of all time. It has more slender and graceful proportions than the temple of Zeus at Olympia, but is not inferior in height to it.

Parthenon in Athens: view today and reconstruction

• Strict calm forms,
• golden Ratio,
• white marble columns sparkling in the sun,
• bright colors -

all together evoked pride, admiration and admiration.

At the entrance to the acropolis, the Propylaea were located, where there was an art gallery (pinoteka) and a rich library. Propylaea is a solemn entrance to the territory of the complex, which serves as a gate.

The chic of the temple of the goddess of victory Nike

Pay attention to the small Temple of Nike (on the right), located on a hill to the southwest of the entrance. It was built in ca. 420 BC designed by the architect Kallikrates in ionic order.

The Ionian order entered the territory of Greece from the region of Ionian Asia Minor. The columns are more elegant and sophisticated. The middle part of the capital resembles a twisted Latin letter I, cut in half - volutes.

Reconstruction of the Acropolis. Temple of Nike on the right.

Rows of columns in front of each of its narrow sides are decorated with relief friezes on the top of the walls. They depict gods (on the east side) and battle scenes.

From the point of view of its sculptural composition, the Temple of Nike was chic. The small building was more decorated than any Ionic temple in the history of Greek architecture.

Its decor consisted of five interconnected zones. Each dramatically reflected the theme of the Athenian victory in battle. The roofs were decorated with complex sculptural groups of gilded bronze. The pediments are battle scenes.

At the time of construction, this was unusual: the pediments of the classical Ionic buildings usually not decorated.

Reconstruction of the frieze of the Temple of Nike (enlarged photo).

Erechtheion caryatids

Another example where the Ionic order is found is the peculiar and complex Erechtheion temple (approximately 406 - 421 BC). The temple is famous because it was asymmetrical. Greek style is primarily symmetry. This project is partly due to the fact that the structure is located on different levels.

It is said that there were some very ancient sanctuaries in this part of the Acropolis. One of the purposes of the new building was to embrace them. Here were stored gifts, sacrificed to the gods.

On the south porch (the most famous), instead of the typical columns, the roof is supported by six statues of maidens - Caryatids. On the outside of the temple, six Ionic columns can be seen on the side of the east façade.

Temple of the Erechtheion in the Athenian Acropolis (southwest side)

Greek architects in the period of classicism skillfully used landscape relief, including for construction

• secular buildings,
• shopping malls and
• spectacular arenas.

The stadiums were in natural valleys. Audience seats in theaters descended from the slopes of the mountains to the stage (orchestra).

The legend of the origin of the Corinthian order

In the classical period, the sculptor Callimachus from Corinth invented the Corinthian order. Its difference is a more saturated decor (a kind of Ionic order). According to legend, a basket entwined with the leaves of a wildly growing shrub became its prototype. The architect saw her on the girl's grave.

The Corinthian order is called "girlish" or "youthful",
Doric - "masculine" or "masculine",
and Ionic "feminine" or "feminine".

Corinthian order of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia

At the end of the classical period, the Corinthian order was added to the Doric and Ionic orders.

Hellenism: miracles and discoveries

The Hellenistic period (IV - I centuries BC) in architecture was marked pseudodipter- a double colonnade, the inner row of which is half hidden in the wall. The author of this discovery was Hermogenes. The Romans adopted this formula and used it extensively in their architecture.

How did the Greeks enrich Egypt?

Hellenism is also famous for the construction of round buildings. Several buildings of this type have been preserved in Eretria, Olympia, on the island of Samothrace.

But the hundred-meter sea lighthouse of Alexandria (Foros Island) is considered the most grandiose.

Alexander the Great during his campaigns founded 17 cities of the same name. But only one survived to this day - Alexandria in Egypt. After the death of Alexander, the city came under the rule of Pharaoh Ptolemy.

He ordered the construction of a lighthouse, included in the list of "7 wonders". The purpose of its construction was to ease the way for sailors in bad weather and at night.

How the Colossus of Rhodes fell twice

Another "miracle" from the list was built by Hares in the form of a giant sculpture of the god Helios - the Colossus of Rhodes. He stood for about 50 years in Rhodes and was destroyed by an earthquake.

The Roman emperor Nero sought to immortalize himself with a copy of the Colossus. But he also fell, and his name with the Italian pronunciation "" passed to the amphitheater.

Ancient Greek style: fading

Hellenistic architecture strives for greater splendor:

• columns become even more slender,
• grooves are deeper
• Corinthian capitals are more decorated with floral motifs with a predominance of acanthus leaves.

Temples began to receive little attention. The gods were forgotten: they built mostly

• public buildings,
• palaces,
• libraries,
• amphitheatres,
• surrounded the area with colonnades.

The influence of other styles increased, eclecticism appeared.

Architecture of Ancient Greece: briefly

• The principle of urban planning: the gods are above, the mortals are below.
• 3 periods of architecture development:
  • archaic (VIII - VI centuries BC),
  • classical (5th century BC),
  • Hellenic (4th - 1st centuries BC).
• 3 orders:
  • Doric,
  • ionic,
  • Corinthian.

In the archaic - Doric and Ionic.
Corinthian was added to the classics.
Hellenism - all three.

Architecture of Dr. Greece…

Architecture

(lat. architectura, from the Greek architeckton - architect, builder), architecture, the art of designing and building objects that shape the spatial environment for human life and activity. Works of architecture - buildings, ensembles, as well as structures that organize open spaces (monuments, terraces, embankments, etc.). The planning and development of cities and populated areas constitute a special area of ​​building art - urban planning. Therefore, architecture plays an important ideological role, being a figurative embodiment of the social, philosophical, religious and artistic ideas of people.

The ideological and artistic features of ancient humanism especially clearly reflected the buildings of the classical period in the development of ancient Greek architecture. 5th century BC e. in Athens. Imbued with a humanistic spirit, the architecture of ancient Greece had a profound impact on the subsequent development of world architecture. In ancient Rome, the leading buildings were those that glorified the power of the state and the personality of the emperors. Large ensembles and separate structures arose, designed for huge masses of people: forums, amphitheaters and theaters, baths, covered markets, basilicas. (Churches) Spread five-, six-story houses - insulas and country villas. The construction of engineering structures - bridges and aqueducts - reached great perfection. Arched and vaulted structures were widely used, which made it possible to create ceilings of large spans. Particular attention was paid to the planning and decoration of interiors.

Renaissance architecture in the countries of Western and Central Europe is characterized by an appeal to the ancient heritage. Public buildings, palaces, villas, temples are clear harmonious buildings and architectural ensembles. The classical order was widely used (architects F. Brunelleschi, L. B. Alberti, Michelozzo, D. Bramante, Michelangelo in Italy). A new type of palace appeared - a palazzo with a closed symmetrical courtyard. The theory of architecture developed (Alberti, J. Vignola, A. Palladio, and others). In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the harmony and completeness of spatial compositions are replaced by complex systems of merging spaces, the plasticity and sculptural volumes of buildings of baroque architecture, the dynamic rhythms of which include decorative sculpture and illusionistic painting (buildings by Italian architects L. Bernini, F. Borromini, C. Maderna, and others). Garden and park construction has been widely developed. The Baroque style spread to Italy, Spain, Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, and Latin American countries. in France in the 17th century. Classicism became the dominant trend. The rationalistic worldview underlying it was expressed in the rigor and geometric composition of buildings and palace and park ensembles (Versailles). French architects (L. Levo, F. Mansart, A. Le Nôtre) used the order mainly as a decorative motif. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. classicism spread widely in Great Britain (architects I. Jones, K. Wren, Adam brothers), and from the last third of the 18th century. - and in other European countries. In the architecture of Great Britain and the Netherlands, with the development of capitalist industry, new types of buildings appeared - industrial buildings, port facilities, exchanges, etc. In Russia at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. Peter's reforms served as an incentive to expand civil engineering, strengthening the secular principle in architecture. Numerous public, administrative, industrial and commercial buildings, urban and vast country palaces-residences with regular parks were built ( cm. Petrodvorets). A new capital, Petersburg, was rebuilt and developed, the planning of which combined the principles of regularity and picturesque building, distinguished by simplicity and rationality. From the middle of the XVIII century. in Russian baroque architecture (architects V. V. Rastrelli, S. I. Chevakinsky, D. V. Ukhtomsky), solemn monumentality, rich plastic and color decoration of facades are combined with clarity of plans and three-dimensional composition. In the last third of the XVIII century. baroque is replaced by classicism (architects A. F. Kokorinov, V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov). Ceremonial monumental urban ensembles in the Empire style were created (architects A. D. Zakharov, A. N. Voronikhin, J. Thomas de Thomon, K. I. Rossi, V. P. Stasov, O. I. Beauvais). In the architecture of Western European countries in the middle and second half of the 18th century. after a brief outbreak of the decorative and pretentious rococo style, classicism was further developed.

The architecture of ancient Greece, covering in its development mainly the VIII-I centuries BC, is divided into three periods: archaic, classical and Hellenistic. They were preceded by periods of Cretan-Mycenaean culture in southern Greece and the Aegean islands. (III millennium - XII century BC) and the so-called Homeric period (XII - VIII centuries BC) - this is the time of the decomposition of the tribal system and the emergence of early class relations, which led to the VIII - VII centuries . BC e. to the formation of ancient slave states. The archaic period (VIII - early V century BC) coincides with the time of the final addition of the policy and the formation of the main types of religious and public buildings. From the second period, covering the time from 480 to the end of the 4th century. it is necessary to single out the time of the highest dawn of the policies (480-400), to which the name of the "classic period" is applied. The leading place in this era belongs to Athens, where in the "golden age" of the reign of Pericles, the development of slave-owning democracy reaches its highest point, and in place with it - art and architecture.

The third period - the era of Hellenism (320s of the 4th century - 1st century AD) - the time of the emergence of Greek-eastern monarchies and the intensive expansion of Hellenic culture into the new cities of Asia Minor and Egypt, which became major centers of commercial and cultural life.

If we talk about the architecture itself, then in ancient Greece it developed quickly and diversified. In the growing Greek cities, residential stone buildings, fortifications, port facilities are being created, but the most important and new appeared not in residential and utility buildings, but in stone public buildings. It was here, and, above all, in the architecture of temples, that classical Greek architectural orders developed.

Rectangular in plan, strict and majestic building, towering on three steps of the basement, surrounded by a strict colonnade and covered with a gable roof - this is what pops up in our memory as soon as we pronounce the words "architecture of Ancient Greece." Indeed, the Greek temple, built according to the rules of the order, was the most significant building in the city both in its purpose and in the place that its architecture occupied in the entire ensemble of the city. Order temple reigned over the city; he dominated the landscape in those cases when temples were built in any other important areas, for example, in places considered sacred by the Greeks. Because the order temple was a kind of pinnacle in Greek architecture, and because it had a tremendous impact on the subsequent history of world architecture, we turned specifically to the features of order buildings, sacrificing many other types and directions of architecture and construction of Ancient Greece. So, let's remember right away - the order in Ancient Greece did not belong to mass architecture, but to architecture of exceptional importance, which has an important ideological meaning and is associated with the spiritual life of society.

Architecture of Ancient Greece

As mentioned above, the architecture of Ancient Greece mainly covers the VIII - I centuries. BC e. and gets its highest development mainly in the so-called "classical period" and in the archaic, in principle, this period will be discussed in this essay, but first we turn to earlier times and see how things are there.

Architecture (Homeric period XI - VIII centuries)

Some ideas about the architecture of the Homeric era are given by: the epic, the few remains of ancient buildings, terracotta models of temples found during excavations of the so-called sacred sites. The paucity of archaeological data does not allow us to recreate the architectural appearance of the cities of that time. In some parts of the Iliad and Odyssey, there are descriptions of ancient sanctuaries - sacred groves and caves with primitive altars; a description is given of a residential estate grouped around a courtyard (“aule”), divided into male and female halves and including special premises for slaves; the main room of the residential building was the “megaron” adjoining the courtyard - a rectangular hall with a hearth in the center, a smoke outlet in the ceiling and an entrance portico formed by the protruding ends of the longitudinal walls (“antae”) and pillars between them.

Megaron was the original architectural type in the development of the Greek temple. Judging by the excavated fragments of buildings, the construction technique of the Homeric era is noticeably inferior to the Mycenaean and Cretan ones. The buildings were built of clay or raw brick (rarely flagstone) on foundations of rubble cemented with clay mortar; elongated in plan, they ended with a curvilinear apse. In the IX - VIII centuries. BC e. They began to use a wooden frame that strengthened the old building (the Temple of Artemis Orvali in Sparta), which contributed to the transition to rectangular plans. Clay model of the temple of the 8th century. BC e. from Heraion near Argos testifies to the development of a double-mat roof and the appearance of a ceiling and gables; the pillars form an independent portico. Later, a portico appears around the entire temple, protecting the mud walls from rain (the 1st temple of Hera in Heraion near Samos, now Tigani, a building in Hermon).

The description in the Odyssey of the palace of Alcinous allows one to guess the aesthetic views of that era when architecture had not yet separated from crafts, and the ideas of beauty from the admiration for craftsmanship, according to Homer, shining like sunlight on all products of human labor. This radiance makes the fairy-tale palace “radiant”, at the sight of which Odysseus’s heart beat faster; he charms not so much with specific means of architecture as with skillful metal details and sheathing, wood carvings, paintings, decorative fabrics; the traveler is attracted by a rich house, a skillfully irrigated garden, the coolness of the premises, the thoughtful organization of the entire estate, filled with the creations of human hands.

Architecture (archaic VIII - VI centuries)

At that time, the city was usually located around a fortified hill - the "acropolis", on the top of which there was a sanctuary with a temple dedicated to the patron god of the policy. At the foot of the acropolis were living quarters; their layout evolved spontaneously; artisans of each profession settled in separate settlements. The center of the lower city was the shopping area "agora" - a place of political meetings of citizens.

In connection with the emergence of new forms of public life, various themes of public buildings are emerging; among them the leading place belonged to the temples.

Along with the temples, other types of public buildings have developed: “bouleuterium” - a house for a meeting of the community council; "Pritaney" - a house with a sacred community hearth, intended for official receptions and solemn meals. Early appeared "sta" - porticos, open in front, and often from other sides, which served as a place of rest and walks. Public buildings also included "leskhs" (a kind of clubs), fountains, theaters, stadiums. Entire complexes of buildings were assigned to "palestres" and "gymnasiums" - schools for the physical and general education of young people. Most of the public buildings were loosely placed around the agora.

The beginning of the search for more durable than previously known, more impressive and corresponding to the requirements of the new era of architectural forms marks the temple of Apollo Terepios in Hermon and the temple of Hera in Olympia.

These temples testify to a greater extent to the search than to the successes of archaic architecture. His greatest achievements were associated with the creation and consistent application of order principles. The order represents a special type of architectural composition, the characteristic features of which are tripartiteness (stereo-wall, columns and entablature), a clear division of parts into carried and bearing ones, an increase in the complexity of building from the bottom up. The order arose as an important element of the architecture of a public building.

The Doric order was formed on the basis of the building experience of the Dorian tribes that inhabited the Greek metropolis. It is found already in the first structures built of stone, both in the metropolis (the old temple of Athena Pronaia and the old folos in Delphi), and in the Dorian colonies (the temple of Artemis in Kerpira, the temple of Apollo in Syracuse). At first, Doric buildings had many local features. Over time, the differences in plan have faded. Sharp fluctuations in the proportions of the columns, which were initially very significant, also disappeared. Ceramic cladding has fallen into disuse, meaningless in stone structures, but sometimes used according to tradition (the treasury of the Iloyans in Olympia).

The temple of Athena on Aegis Island, the treasury of the Athenians in Delphi, the temple of Apollo in Corinth, the “basilica” and the temple of Demeter in Paestum serve as examples of the established archaic dorica.

An important element of archaic architecture was decor: sculpture that filled the fields of metols and pediments, and the painting of facades (with wax paints on the finest marble plaster or directly on stone). In Doric temples, the backgrounds for sculpture were painted blue or red. Mutuls, triglyphs and reguls - in blue, the lower surfaces of the cornice, tenia, under the capitals - in red. The main, “working” parts of the building (architrave, column) were not painted. The coloring emphasized the construction and at the same time gave the architecture a festive, major character.

The decorative and graceful Ionic order, light in proportions, was formed in the rich trading cities of island and Asia Minor Greece, which were influenced by the culture of the East. The constructive prototype of the Ionic entablature was a flat adobe roof, combined with the ceiling, laid along a continuous roll from a small forest. It is in this design that the high Ionic force and the teeth located on top of the architrave find their prototype. The Ionic order is found for the first time in large Asian dipteras of the middle of the 6th century BC. e., built of limestone and marble. Among them, the most famous is the temple of Artemis (architects Hersiphon and Metagenes) in Ephesus.

In the VI century BC. e. Greek architects achieved great success in the creation of architectural ensembles. The most important type of ensemble, along with the support and the acropolis, was the sanctuary. In the ensemble of the sanctuary at Delphi, which were determined in the main features in the VI century BC. e., an important element of the architectural image is the landscape environment. The composition of the sanctuary was designed for the perception of a person who, as part of a solemn procession, ascended the zigzags of the illuminated road, framed by treasuries and motif statues; at one of the turns, unexpectedly large and therefore especially impressive masses of the main temple, standing on a high terrace, appeared before his eyes.

Greek orders.

In the ancient Greek order, there is a clear and harmonious order, according to which the three main parts of the building are combined with each other: the base - the stereobat, the supporting supports - the columns and the supporting structure - the entablature. The Doric order (originated at the beginning of the 7th century BC) had three main parts (see above). It is characterized by a column dissected by grooves-flutes converging at an acute angle, standing without a base and completed with a simple capital, an architrave in the form of an even beam and a frieze of alternating triglyphs and metopes. The Ionic order (formed in the middle of the 6th century BC) differs sharply from the Doric order by a slender column standing on the base and completed by a capital with two volutes, a three-part architrave and a ribbon-like frieze; the flutes here are separated by a flat track.

Both the Doric and Ionic orders were used in ancient Greece in a wide range of buildings - from small galleries of residential buildings to grandiose temple porticos.

But in addition to the Doric and Ionic orders in ancient Greece, there were others. Here is some of them.

The Corinthian order is similar to the Ionic, but differs from it in a complex capital decorated with floral patterns (the oldest Corinthian column is known in the temple of Apollo in Basa, now Vassus in the Peloponnese, built around 430 BC by the famous architect Iktin).

The Aeolian order (known from several buildings of the 7th century BC - in Neandria in Asia Minor, in Larissa, on the island of Lesvos) has a thin smooth column standing on the base and completed with a capital, large volutes and petals of which reproduce plant motifs.

The origin of the ancient Greek order and its features have been studied in great detail. There is no doubt that its source is wooden pillars fixed on a pedestal, which are supported by wooden beams blocking them. The gable roof of the stone temples repeats the trussed wooden structure. In the form of ceilings, in the details of the Doric order, one can see their origin from buildings from a large forest. In the lighter Ionic order, roof construction techniques from small logs affected. In the capitals of the Aeolian order, a local construction technique is manifested, according to which beams were laid on a fork in the branches of a tree trunk. In ancient Greece, a strictly ordered plan of the temple, which was built according to the rules of orders, quickly developed. It was a temple-peripter, that is, a temple surrounded on all sides by a colonnade, inside of which there was a sanctuary (cella) behind the walls. The origin of the peripter can be traced back to buildings close to the most ancient megarons. The closest to the megaron is the temple “in antah”, that is, the temple, where the ends of the walls protrude on the end side, between which columns are placed. This is followed by a prostyle with a portico on the façade, an amphiprostyle with two porticos on opposite sides, and finally a peripter. Of course, this is only a scheme of historical development: temples of different types were often built simultaneously in Greece. But one way or another, a residential building, a megaron, served as the oldest model, and in the 7th century. BC. periptery temples appeared (the temple of Apollo Thermios, otherwise Fermos, the temple of Hera at Olympia, etc.). In the temples of that time, raw brick and wooden columns were still used, which were eventually replaced by stone ones. Together with the creation of stone structures, the ancient architects "from the field of shaky and unstable eye calculations worked out to establish strong laws of" symmetry "or proportionality of the building's components." This is how the Roman architect of the 1st century BC wrote about it. BC. Vitruvius, the author of the only fully preserved ancient treatise on architecture, by which we can reliably judge the views of that era on architecture. Of course, taking into account the fact that the orders were formed six hundred years before the appearance of this treatise. All these “strong laws” were fixed in the stone architecture of Ancient Greece for centuries, and if we count those eras when the order was revived in architecture again, then for millennia.

Architecture (classical Greece in the 5th century BC)

The development of orders in ancient Greece was associated mainly with the formation of the main types of public buildings and, above all, temples. In connection with the idea of ​​the temple as the dwelling of a deity, its original composition was formed under the influence of an ancient residential house - a megaron with a portico in front of it and a statue inside the building. The simplest type of temple is antovy. It consisted of a rectangular hall - a cella and an entrance portico in two columns located between the protrusions of the longitudinal walls - ants. The development of the temple in ante is a prostyle, in which a four-column portico is advanced in relation to the ants, as well as an amphiprostyle - with two end porticos on opposite sides. Finally, during the archaic period, a peripter was formed, which has a colonnade on four sides.

The development of the peripter and other types of temples in the archaic and classical era gives the most vivid idea of ​​the changes in the order composition and the addition of the characteristic features of Greek architecture. The peak of development was the temples of the Acropolis of Athens, which was created in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. and dominates the city and its environs. Destroyed during the Persian invasions, the Acropolis was rebuilt on a scale never seen before. During the third quarter of the 5th c. BC e. sparkling, white marble buildings were erected: the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the temple of Nike Apteros (“Wingless Victory”). The building of the Ereichteion, which completed the ensemble, was built later.

Truly harmony was achieved by the builders of the Parthenon, Iktik and Kallikrat. The columns of the temple have the same height as the columns of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, but the heavy proportions of the “severe” style have been replaced by harmony and grace. The influence of Ionian traditions was reflected in the appearance of a frieze on the outside of the western part of the building. The architect Mnesicles, the creator of the majestic gate leading to the Acropolis, the Propylaea, also strove to combine both styles: Ionian columns coexist here with Doric ones. On the contrary, the architecture of the beautiful miniature temple of Athena the Conqueror is dominated by Ionian features. Also in the spirit of Ionian traditions, the Ereichteion was built, located very picturesquely.

All these wonderful creations of Athenian architects are located on the Acropolis. On the hill of the Acropolis, the main sanctuaries of the Athenians were located, and above all the Parthenon - the temple of Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the patroness of Athens. The treasury is kept there. In the building of the Propylaea, which served as the entrance to the Acropolis, there is a library and an art gallery in two of their outbuildings - wings.

Greek architects knew how to perfectly choose the places for their buildings. The temple was erected where it was as if a place had been prepared for it by nature itself, and at the same time, its calm strict forms, harmonious proportions, light marble columns, bright colors contrasted the temple with nature, affirmed the superiority of a structure reasonably created by man over the surrounding world.

The Acropolis embodied the idea of ​​the power and greatness of the Athenian state and at the same time, for the first time in the history of Greece, expressed the idea of ​​pan-Hellenic unity.

The meaning of the planning of the Acropolis can be understood only by imagining the movement of solemn processions during the days of public festivities. The road led up to the solemn gates - the Propylaea. The Doric colonnade of the Propylaea has two unequal, but mutually balanced wings of the building; the temple of Nike Apteros (“Wingless Victory”), which began construction in 449 as a monument in honor of the victory of Athens over the Persians, adjoins the right, smaller wing. It is not large in size, harmonious and clear in form, the temple, as if separated from the general massif of the hill, was the first to meet the procession. Slender Ionic columns on each of the two short sides of the temple give the building a touch of grace. From the Propylaea, the main temple of the Acropolis, the Parthenon, erected on the highest platform of the Acropolis, is visible from the corner. The large building of the Parthenon is balanced by the elegant and relatively small Erechtekhon temple standing on the other side of the square, shading the sublime severity of the Parthenon with free asymmetry. Parthenon- the most perfect creation of Greek classical architecture and one of the highest achievements of architecture in general. This monumental, majestic building rises above the Acropolis, just as the Acropolis itself rises above the city and its environs. The Parthenon is the largest temple in the ensemble of the Acropolis and the entire Greek metropolis. Inside it has two large halls - rectangular and square, the entrances to which were located on opposite sides. The eastern rectangular hall with a statue of Athena in the depth was divided into three parts by two-tiered colonnades of the Doric order. The square hall served as a treasury and was called the Parthenon.

The type of Greek temple, over the creation of which many generations worked, received the most perfect interpretation in the Parthenon. In its basic forms, it is a Doric peripter with eight columns on the short sides and seventeen on the long sides. But it organically includes elements of the Ionic order: columns elongated in proportion, a lightweight entablature, a continuous frieze encircling the building, made of squares of Pentelic marble. The coloring emphasizes the structural details and provided a backdrop against which the pediment and metope sculptures stood out.

The majestic clarity and strict harmony of the Parthenon seem to be opposed by the grace and freedom of composition of the Erechtheion, an asymmetric building built on the Acropolis by an unknown master in 421-406. BC e. Dedicated to Athena and Poseidon, the Erechtheion is distinguished by a picturesque interpretation of the architectural whole, a contrasting juxtaposition of architectural and sculptural forms. The layout of the Erechtheion takes into account the unevenness of the soil. The temple consists of two rooms located at different levels. On three sides it has porticos of various shapes, including the famous cor (caryatid) portico on the south wall.

With its dissection and picturesque forms, the Erechtheion paves the way for art later than the classics, sometimes more tragically agitated, sometimes lyrically refined, but less valuable and heroic than high classics. In addition to the Acropolis of Athens, in the archaic and classical periods, many other ensembles developed, including temples, sanctuaries and public buildings (the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, the complex of temples in Poseidonia, etc.). But already from the 4th century, temples began to lose their leading importance and buildings and complexes for secular purposes, which were formed as elements of the general structure of cities, were increasingly developed. It is especially worth highlighting the shopping and entertainment - sports complexes, combined with the natural landscape. Stadiums were arranged in natural depressions, sometimes reaching significant sizes (Athens, Olympia), theaters used the slopes of the mountains to build a natural semicircular theatron with a round platform - an orchestra, where the choir usually performed. A rectangular stage adjoined the orchestra.

Architecture (epoch of Hellenism).

For the plastic arts III - I centuries. BC e. were by no means times of decline. An example is the famous sculptural group of Laocoön, a masterpiece of Hellenistic plasticity. The group was created in the first half of the 1st century. BC e., i.e., when Greek poetry was already engulfed in creative barrenness.

The sacred architecture of the Hellenistic era was dominated by the Ionian order. A few Doric buildings were distinguished by slender columns and light ceiling beams - this, like the appearance of some other elements, indicates the decomposition of the old Doric style, which still retained ancient traditions only in the Greek West. If the Doric order was not widespread in sacred architecture, then in secular construction it was often resorted to, as can be seen from the colonnades of the porticos.

The monumental temple of Didymaion in Miletus speaks of the triumph of the Ionian order: the temple was surrounded by a double colonnade, consisting of 210 Ionian columns. The Ionian style won not only in life, but also in the theory of architecture. The architect and theoretician of this art, Hermogenes, who worked in the middle of the 2nd century, worked especially hard for him. BC e. and who created a new architectural formula - a pseudo-dipter: a building surrounded by a double colonnade, and the inner row of columns was half hidden in the wall of the building. This form - the last creation of the Ionian style - was embodied in the great temple of Artemis Leukofriena in Magnesia; later, the pseudodipter was widely borrowed by the Romans both in practice and in theory. In addition to rectangular buildings in the Hellenistic era, round monuments increasingly appeared, continuing the traditions of the 4th century BC. BC e. Of the surviving monuments of this type, Arsinoeion on the island of Samothrace, the choreic monument of Thrasilla, buildings in Olympia and Eretria deserve attention. The most outstanding was the creation of Sostratus of Cnidus - a sea lighthouse on the island of Pharos near Alexandria, elevated by more than 100 meters in height. The lighthouse of Alexandria was considered one of the seven wonders of the world, but has not survived to our time.

In the history of the development of all European culture, the most important place is occupied by the art and culture of ancient Greece. On its basis, the classical canons of antiquity were formed.

In general, its cultural traditions were full of contradictions, because they were created in a society of slave-owning democracy. However, the works of ancient masters became the standard for the creators of many subsequent generations.

The first archaeological excavations at the beginning of the 18th century were carried out in the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, buried under the volcanic lava of Vesuvius. As a result of the research, many unique samples of various works of masters of that era were discovered.

These are sculptures and relief images, crockery and household utensils, weapons and ancient tools. Among all the valuable specimens found, the surviving fragments of buildings attract special attention. They are of great interest to scientists in the process of studying the architectural appearance of the cities of ancient Greece.

Periods of development of ancient Greek architecture

The entire history of the development of architecture in ancient Greece can be divided into several periods:

• Homeric era(from the XII to the middle of the VIII centuries BC) - the period of the birth and development of Hellenic architecture, the time of the gradual decomposition of the tribal system and the emergence of new class relations. The Hellenic architecture was originally based on the traditions of the Aegean culture, but later new, original features were born.

Temples were not yet built in the Bronze Age. And only at the beginning of the VIII century a temple appears, the design features of which resemble the megaron that arose earlier in. The main building material for the temple was unbaked brick, and the gable roof was made of wood.

Most of the information about the appearance of buildings of that period, scientists have learned from the works of Homer. In those days, houses were built of wood, which were fastened with metal sheathing for greater strength.

Another common type of building material was raw brick. Towards the end of the period, builders began to use fired tiles. This time is characterized by the construction of not only ordinary residential buildings, but also the first temples.

This period is notable for the formation of a special planning system, in which an important place is occupied by the colonnade surrounding the building from all sides. One of the earliest buildings of that period is considered Temple of Goddess Hera on the island of Samos.

• archaic period(from the VIII to the beginning of the V centuries BC) - is characterized by the final formation of the slave state, and the emergence of the city - policy.

At the beginning of the archaic period, the technique of building from wood and mud brick was also widespread. The difference was only in the use of terracotta facings for the decoration of temples. In the future, the most important and large-scale structures begin to be built from soft and easy-to-work limestone. At the end of the period, the most common material becomes.

During the 7th century BC, the ancient Greek building art developed in several directions at once, which had significant differences.

In the archaic period, the first samples of monumental structures appeared, and various types of temples and other public buildings were formed.

There is a birth and development of orders, which later become the basic and most recognizable elements of ancient Greek architecture.

• classical period(from 480 to 400 BC) - the reign of Pericles, which is characterized by a high level of development of architecture and all areas of art.

The order system honed to an ideal state is widely used. The appearance of buildings acquires sophistication, and the handwriting of architects becomes recognizable.

Athens becomes the main city with the correct layout of the streets. In other cities, the construction of new residential areas is also being carried out according to a single plan.

During this period, the architectural appearance of a typical Greek house was formed, which consists of a courtyard surrounded by porticos, the prototype of which was the megaron.

The classical period is characterized by the appearance of open stone theaters and halls for music - odeyons. New forms are being acquired by public buildings for the gathering of large numbers of people.

• The era of the expansion of policies(4th century BC) - during this period, temples lose their advanced importance, but secular architecture develops with greater intensity and the layout of residential buildings improves.

The building acquires great sophistication and elegance through the use of Ionic and Corinthian orders.

• Hellenistic era(330 - s - I century BC) - the period of the emergence of Greek - Eastern monarchies and the penetration of ancient Greek culture into Asia Minor and Egypt.

The Hellenistic era is characterized by a mixture of different styles and orders for a purely decorative purpose. But at the same time, the former conciseness, monumentality and recognizability of the order system are lost.

However, this fact does not at all prevent the creation of large-scale urban ensembles, in the architecture of which the peristyle is widely used - rows of columns surrounding courtyards and squares.

order system

An order in architecture is a system of manifestation of a building structure in a certain form. With the development and formation of the style of various orders, the proportionality of the whole structure and its individual parts, the composition and the corresponding proportions are established. The forms of buildings are gradually being improved, and the Greek classics reach the pinnacle of its development.

Three main orders were used in the architecture of ancient Greece:

• Doric
• Ionic
• Corinthian

The main difference between architectural orders was primarily in the forms of columns and entablature, as well as in various decorative details and proportions.

At the same time, the layout of the building space was the same for all order systems. Both Doric and Ionic orders were used in the process of building not only religious, but also secular buildings, as well as places of public visitation.

Each building is a single whole, created from separate architectural elements, among which are the following:

• Crepida- this is the foot of any building, a kind of foundation for the structure.
• Walls
• columns various orders
• Entablature
• Roof
• triangular pediment

In ancient Greek architecture, a system of columns and entablature was used, or, as it is also called, a post-beam system. The best examples of buildings were temples, which were originally built from, and later from natural stone.

Doric order

The Doric order is the most massive of all, but at the same time it is distinguished by the simplicity of decorative details and the severity of finishing elements. The Doric order was formed in the 6th century BC. A striking example is Temple of Hera at Olympia.

The dimensions of the individual parts of the structure and their proportional relationship are related to the length of the radius of the column at its base. This radius is called the modulus, and on its basis all subsequent proportions are calculated.

In the future, with the development of construction techniques, the columns became thinner, elegant and tall. Accordingly, the distance between them increased, and the height of the entablature decreased.

The temple of the Doric order was usually built on a three-stage high base. The steps of the crepid were not intended for people to climb. It was one of the characteristic elements of ancient Greek architecture. The height of the steps of the base was determined from the calculation of the general proportions of the structure.

On a three-stage base, columns were installed that did not have a base. They consisted of a three-part capital (hypotrachelium, echinus, abacus) and a fluted barrel, which had a slight thickening - entakhis. The height of the column shaft was approximately 11 modules, that is, it was 11 times longer than the radius of the column at the base.

The entablature of the Doric order was also three-part. On the columns there was an architrave with a frieze, which consisted of triglyphs and metopes. It also supported a slightly projecting cornice. The roof was gable with a slight slope. The triangular pediment, as a rule, was decorated with sculptures.

For the compositional completeness of the Doric temple, the color of the structure was of great importance, which additionally emphasized its structural features.

The most famous of the surviving examples of Doric buildings is Temple of Poseidon at Paestum in southern Italy and Temple of Hephaestus in Athens.

According to its architectural merit, the most significant building is considered to be on the Acropolis of Athens.

Ionic order

The buildings of the Ionic order are characterized by greater lightness and grace. This is especially noticeable in comparison with the massive elements of the Doric order.

The Ionic temples of the early period were larger and more luxuriously decorated than the ponderous and austere Doric temples.

But the main distinguishing feature can be considered the appearance of the columns: they are much slimmer and thinner. In addition, they have a base, a stem and a capital. The most luxurious form is characterized by a capital with volutes.

At the same time, the columns are not connected by rhythmic elements, as in the Doric order. Instead of a frieze, the Ionic entablature was trimmed with a belt decorated with a bas-relief. All details of the Ionic order had a complex profiling.

The Ionic order reaches its greatest flourishing in Asia Minor, where the samples of structures are of considerable size. A striking example is Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which reached a length of 126 meters, and had columns 18 meters high.

In Greece itself, the buildings of the Ionic order are represented by small, elegant buildings. Of the surviving examples, one can name Temple of Nike Apteros and in the ensemble of the Acropolis in Athens.

Temple of Nike - Apteros
Erechtheion - the last temple in the ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis

Corinthian order

The Corinthian order was developed on the basis of the Ionic order and was finally formed only in Roman architecture. The main difference between the Corinthian order and the Ionic one was the presence of a capital with four sides, decorated with a sculptural image of acanthus leaves.

Among the most significant examples of the Corinthian order in Greece is the capital Statue of Lysicrates in Athens. Another example of the use of the Corinthian order is the unfinished Athenian Olympion.

Olympeion - Temple of Zeus in Athens

Construction machinery

In the architecture of ancient Greece, natural stone of various varieties was the main building material. So, in the early period, soft limestone was used, which was easy to process. Limestone was used during construction in the 6th century BC. But in the ensemble of the New Acropolis, built by Pericles, there are already structures made of Pentelian marble.

At the same time, it should be emphasized that temples and public buildings were built primarily from stone. But residential buildings were usually built of brick - raw or baked bricks.

In the process of laying the walls of public buildings, it was also sometimes used, but later the outer side was lined with stone slabs.

For the construction of roofs and ceilings, wood was usually used. In the early period, the columns of temples were also made of wood. This could be seen in the example of the temple of Hera at Olympia, where the wooden columns were subsequently replaced by stone ones.

The masonry was made in a dry way without the use of mortar. At the same time, spikes or wooden dowels were used to strengthen the structure. The construction had to withstand tremors in the event of earthquakes, so the stone blocks were fastened together with many metal brackets.

The process of installing complex architectural elements was very laborious. Some details were made immediately solid - for example, capitals and slabs with sculptural elements. The remaining parts were processed only after their installation. At the same time, the final processing was carried out in the direction from top to bottom as the height of the construction scaffolds decreased.

However, from the point of view of professional architects, ancient Greek architecture, striking in the nobility and perfection of its forms, was very simple in its design. This system consisted of load-bearing elements of the building (walls and columns) that could withstand the load and load-bearing parts - beams, slabs and lintels.