Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (Molière) (1622-1673) was the first to make comedy look like a genre equal to tragedy. He synthesized the best achievements of comedy from Aristophanes to contemporary classical comedy, including the experience of Cyrano de Bergerac, whom scientists often mention among the direct creators of the first examples of national French comedy.

In the work of Molière, comedy was further developed as a genre. Formed such forms as "high" comedy

The main principle of the writer's aesthetics is "to teach while entertaining". Standing up for the truthful reflection of reality in art, Moliere insisted on a meaningful perception of theatrical action, the subject of which he most often chose the most typical situations, phenomena, characters.

The features of the "high" comedy were most clearly manifested in the famous play "Tartuffe"

Each of the plays that form the trilogy (Tartuffe, Don Giovanni, Misanthrope) - at the core: a type determined not so much by a psychological warehouse as by a warehouse of world outlook. Saint ("Tartuffe"); an atheist ("Don Juan") a moralist ("Misanthrope") - these three heroes embody the three eternal ways of self-determination of a person in the world.

16. Moliere's comedy "Tartuffe".

The features of the "high" comedy were most clearly manifested in the famous play "Tartuffe". 1664 – top stage start : "Tartuffe" Premiere - at a court feast, a terrific action: a scandal. The Queen Mother left the theater, offended in religious feelings. "Encroached on the religious foundations of society." At this time there is a revival among the Jesuits; under Molière for half a century - the "Society of Holy Gifts", under the auspices of the queen; its goal is the eradication of dissent, its methods are espionage and denunciations. Molière is a "dangerous enemy" The leaders of the Society put pressure on the king, who liked the play, even demanded a fire (it was then: 1662 - the young freethinker Claude le Petit was burned). Everyone took up arms: the Jesuits, the Jansenists, the Archbishop of Paris. Molière struggled for five years to lift the ban on the play. He tried to somewhat disguise the anti-church sound: he made the hero from a clergyman into a secular one; but didn't help. And only some general softening of religious policy in the state made it possible to beg the king to allow the production. The success was extraordinary: both criticism of the Jesuits and, in general, the exposure of all hypocrisy. plot: wealthy bourgeois Orgon; daughter Marianne reads a “friend” as a wife, entrusts dangerous documents to him for safekeeping, writes a deed of gift (all her fortune) to him. The compositional technique is intriguing: the title character appears only in act 3, and two acts appear only in absentia. His characterization is complete, and he immediately gets into it, from the first remark to the servant: Laurent, take the whip, take the sackcloth,// And bless the right hand with our hearts on high,// If they ask, then I went to prison// To carry a meager mite to the fallen into darkness Dorina to this: “What antics both in speech and in look!” And he gives her a scarf to cover her neck and "decollete". Everyone sees the essence of Tartuffe except Orgon; and even to the message of his son (Damis) that Tartuffe is after his young stepmother Elvira - Orgon calls Damis a slanderer. And only after seeing all this with his own eyes, he comes to his senses and drives Tartuffe away, but too late: Orgon is already in the hands of the villain. Tartuffe, already exposed by him, is trying with the help of the authorities to arrest Orgon and take possession of his fortune. But at the last moment, the king figured out who is who. In comedy, Tartuffe appears as a powerful force that no one can resist, because he hypocrisy is based on religion like a real powerful force. Monstrous hypocrisy - the contradiction between "vocal actions" and "secret passions." Tartuffe's "vowel actions" are painted in tones of deep religiosity, Christian humility and asceticism. But the point is not hypocrisy (Tartuffe could have been sincere - the result would have been the same). Falsity and pretense in themselves, just in Molière's Tartuffe, are not too interesting. The bottom line is how exactly Tyurtuff bewitches his gullible benefactor: The circle of conscience, when it becomes narrow, / / ​​We can expand; after all, for any sins / / There is an excuse in good intentions Contrasting "earthly" morality, verified by the human mind, - "heavenly" morality, faith-revealed. A very bold satire on the entire religious worldview. (eg see Orgon and Kleant - a hint at Christ, to whom everything must be sacrificed. The story of Orgon is the consistent fulfillment of a religious ideal). Cleante - a reasoner, with t.zr. reasonable measure and morality (his answer to Orgon). This is the "high comedy" of classicism: 3-unities are observed Clearly - the principle of the characterology of comedy: Tartuffe is consistently depicted from the same perspective - as a hypocrite. The principles of classicism in composition (at the level of the whole play - and individual scenes). The key here is symmetry.. N-r, opening and ending scenes: full collection, and Madame Pernel at the beginning fiercely defends Tartuffe, and at the end begins to see clearly. And some episodes N-r, Marianne and Valer sort things out, alternately trying to escape, and Dorina holds them back) This is an external reflection of faith in the stability of the world order. Cleanthe also speaks about the measure, the balance - to Orgon. Belief in the justice of the laws of being is the finale; the embodiment of justice - the king. Not so much a compliment as a lesson and an example to the monarch. Each of the plays that form the trilogy (Tartuffe, Don Giovanni, Misanthrope) - at the core: a type determined not so much by a psychological warehouse as by a warehouse of world outlook. Saint ("Tartuffe"); an atheist ("Don Juan") a moralist ("Misanthrope") - these three heroes embody the three eternal ways of self-determination of a person in the world. For 5 years of struggle, Don Juan and Misanthrope were written, which also have a dramatic fate.

The image of Tartuffe is built on the contradiction between words and deeds, between appearance and essence.. In words, he “scourges all sinful things publicly” and wants only that “what heaven pleases.” But in fact, he does all sorts of baseness and meanness. He constantly lies, encourages Orgon to bad deeds. So, Orgon expels his son from the house because Damis speaks out against the marriage of Tartuffe with Mariana. Tartuffe indulges in gluttony, commits treason by fraudulently taking possession of the donation to the property of his benefactor. The maid Dorina characterizes this "saint" in this way.

If we carefully analyze the actions of Tartuffe, we will find that all seven deadly sins are present. The image of Tartuffe is built only on hypocrisy. Hypocrisy is proclaimed through every word, deed, gesture. There are no other traits in Tartuffe's character. Moliere himself wrote that in this image, from beginning to end, Tartuffe does not utter a single word that would not depict a bad person to the audience. Drawing this character, the playwright also resorts to satirical hyperbolization: Tartuffe is so pious that when he crushed a flea during prayer, he apologizes to God for having killed a living creature.

To highlight the sanctimonious beginning in Tartuffe, Molière builds two scenes in succession. In the first, the "holy man" Tartuffe, embarrassed, asks the maid Dorina to cover her cleavage, but after a while he seeks to seduce Orgon's wife Elmira. Molière's strength is in what he showed - Christian morality, piety not only do not interfere with sinning, but even help to cover these sins.

Tartuffe's passionate monologue ends with a confession that finally deprives the halo of holiness of his pious nature. Moliere, through the mouth of Tartuffe, debunks both the mores of high society and the mores of churchmen, which differ little from each other.

Tartuffe's sermons are as dangerous as his passions. They change a person, his world to such an extent that, like Orgon, he ceases to be himself.

Comedy reasoner Cleante acts not only as an observer of the events taking place in Orgon's house, but also tries to change the situation. He openly throws accusations against Tartuffe and similar saints. His famous monologue is a verdict on hypocrisy and hypocrisy. Such as Tartuffe, Cleante opposes people with a pure heart, lofty ideals.

The maid Dorina also confronts Tartuffe, defending the interests of her masters. Dorina is the most witty character in comedy. She literally showers Tartuffe with ridicule. Her irony also falls on the owner, because Orgon is a dependent person, too trusting, which is why Tartuffe deceives him so easily.

Dorina personifies a healthy folk principle. The fact that the most active fighter against Tartuffe is the bearer of popular common sense is deeply symbolic. It is no coincidence that Cleanthe, who personifies the enlightened mind, becomes Dorina's ally. This was the utopianism of Molière. The playwright believed that evil in society could be resisted by the union of popular common sense and enlightened reason.

Dorina also helps Mariana in her struggle for happiness. She openly expresses her opinion to the owner about his plans to marry his daughter to Tartuffe, although this was not accepted among the servants. The squabble between Orgon and Dorina draws attention to the problem of family education and the role of the father in it. Orgon considers himself entitled to control the children, their destinies, so he makes a decision without a shadow of a doubt. The unlimited power of the father is condemned by almost all the characters in the play, but only Dorina, in her usual caustic manner, sharply castigates Orgon, so the remark accurately captures the attitude of the master towards the statements of the maid: “Orgon is always ready to slap Dorina in the face and with every word that he says to his daughter turns around to look at Dorina…”

As it turns out, Tartuffe took possession of the chest of papers by deceit and presented them to the king, seeking the arrest of Orgon. That is why he behaves so unceremoniously when an officer and a bailiff come to Orgon's house. According to Tartuffe, he was sent to the house of Orgon by the king. So, all the evil in the state comes from the monarch! Such a ending could not but cause a scandal. However, already in the revised version, the text of the play contains an element of miracle. At the moment when Tartuffe, confident in his success, demands that the royal order be put in motion, the officer unexpectedly asks Tartuffe to follow him to prison. Molière curtsies towards the king. The officer, pointing to Tartuffe, remarks to Orgon how merciful and just the monarch is, how wisely he rules his subjects.

So, in accordance with the requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, good eventually wins, and vice is punished. The finale is the weakest point of the play, but it did not reduce the overall social sound of the comedy, which has not lost its relevance to this day.

Introduction

Boyadzhiev begins his study of Moliere's work with words that, in our opinion, adorn any work devoted to a related topic, and also help to understand the significance of the playwright's innovation, which was rendered to the history of subsequent dramatic art all over the world. The researcher wrote: “In the annals of the history of the world theater, five years - from 1664 to 1669, during which Tartuffe, Don Giovanni, Misanthrope, Georges Danden and The Miser were written, are comparable only with the five years of creation " Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear. But to the heights, in which the principles of play composition found by Moliere were embodied, lay a long path of creative search and search for one's place in life - on the mobile stages of provincial France.

Bibliographic reference. Jean-Baptiste Moliere (real name Poquelin) was born in Paris on January 15, 1622 in the family of a court upholsterer. Passion for the theater since childhood manifested itself in the boy. At the age of ten, he first became acquainted with the folk, farcical theater, when he saw the play of the comic actor Tabarin on Saint-Germain Square. The comic here had a rather crude, primitive character. Obsceneness, blows with sticks, purely external ways to cause laughter, auto-representations of heroes, simplified composition (heroes appear and leave only because the rapid development of the action requires it, etc.) in the absence of significant content - these features of Tabarin's farces were inherent in pre-Moliere comedy .

It is not surprising, therefore, that Molière, having fallen in love with an actress, did not follow the path of either an upholsterer, or more of a more prestigious path of a lawyer (In 1639 he graduated from Clermont College and, becoming a licentiate of law). He chose for himself the career of a tall, tragic actor. And with friends he founded the "Brilliant Theater". The level of actors' play was low, in contrast to the actors of the famous Burgunsky Hotel. Unable to withstand the competition, the theater went bankrupt, and, having assumed financial obligations, Molière even served time in a debtor's prison.

The failure of the "Brilliant Theater" prompted the future great playwright to leave for the provinces, where he would spend 12 years and find himself in the terrible time of the civil war (1648-1653), which was called the Fronde. Departure from Paris split Moliere's life into two parts: the "provincial period" of his work and the "court" period (since 1658), when his best works were written, stand out. Despite the fact that the “provincial period” is much less interesting in terms of the artistic significance of what was created and much more “obscure” for researchers (a significant number of plays have not survived), nevertheless, its role cannot be belittled. 12 years of the province of Molière is a time of gaining experience, laying down creative guidelines, as well as preparing for that great reform, which is one of Molière's fundamental innovations in the history of the world theater.

Molière is an actor. The most important feature of Molière's work is recognized by researchers as his closeness to acting. Indeed, in the "Brilliant Theater" he began as an actor. In the dramas of the provincial period, he plays his own characters. It is known that in the famous satire on pretentious art and its representatives - "The Funny Pretenders" - he hides under the mask of Sganarelle. When Moliere was already a famous playwright, the French Academy offered him a position as an academic, but on the condition that he break with theatrical activities. But Moliere did not want to fulfill this condition. All these facts indicate that for him being in the theatrical world as an actor was also fundamental.

What are the reasons for such an ardent attitude towards the despicable acting profession? Boyadzhiev points to what is essential for Moliere in his work on the play, meaning that the “head”, artificial writing of the work, cut off from the live embodiment on the stage, was unthinkable for the playwright. The real-time response of the audience gave Molière's acting work the status of "quality control" of his "product". The drama, thus, lost a huge amount of abstractness, was closer to stage reality and its real participants. It is no coincidence that around the comedies of Molière there is still a dispute about the ratio of "acting" and the actual dramatic in them.

Court character of Molière's drama. Speaking about the work of Moliere, it must be borne in mind that he was a court comedian. Work at the court of Louis XIV - one of the most brilliant monarchs of France, who owns the phrase "The state is me", could not leave a specific imprint on the author's work. Tsebrikova cites numerous indications that it was not uncommon for Molière, by royal order, to insert acts directed against specific individuals into comedy (for example, at the court Soiskur in the drama The Unbearable).

An entire estate could also be exposed and ridiculed. One of the most striking examples is the ending of Tartuffe, when the tragic end of the comedy allowed the appearance of the King (sun) and his decree, which restores the shaken harmony. Being the pinnacle of artistic creativity, this drama played into the hands of the personal fate of its author: the king was flattered by the attack against the clerical estate, which was a "state within a state" and thus forcing the monarch to reckon with his own interests.

The dramatic originality of Moliere's plays was the solution by the author of the most difficult task - while remaining a royal jester, to combine the role of a moralist with this role. Quite controversial is the question of the end of "Tartuffe".

Proximity to the court predetermined the division of Moliere's comedies into 2 groups: comedies of manners and buffoonery comedies, with ballets and dances. The latter were supposed to be purely entertaining, subdivided in turn into both full ballets and event plays with separate ballet inserts. It is known that Louis XIV was very fond of ballet, and therefore in some performances the king and courtiers could be involved in the action as participants for a while.

Ballet and farcical elements are connected in the "reluctant marriage". In the "Princess of Elis" ballet interludes are inserted into a pseudo-antique lyrical-pastoral plot. In these works, a division is outlined in the use of the ballet element by Molière.

The 1st type of ballet-comedy ("Love the Healer", "Mr. de Prusogniac", "The Philistine in the Nobility", "The Imaginary Sick", etc.) retains the significance of plot, solid plays. Although, of course, the artistic merit within this group was far from homogeneous. Works of the ballet type can be called more conditional, artificial than his plot dramas.

Satirical by Molière. Tsebrikova claims that Molière's Comedy is a satire on manners, but that "it could not have been otherwise." She emphasizes the sharp contrast between French comedy before Molière, which only ridicules “forms of the manifestation of vice” and moralizing comedy, Molière’s, which tries to penetrate to the very essence, reveals “tears invisible to the world.”

Indeed, Molière's comedy, with the possibility of leaving comedy proper for farce, focused attention on a bright character, for various reasons, turning out to be unsuitable for the world. Turn the world around due to the unsuitability of the hero for it - a method characteristic of the romantic direction (the romantics call Molière one of the great predecessors). Although, of course, a tragic view of the fate of such a hero is alien to Molière. He saw his goal in ridiculing vices.

In comparison with the heroes of Shakespeare and Lope de Vego, who are characterized by the joy of life, the feeling of being overwhelmed, the heroes of Molière are placed in a comedy of a satirical beginning, where tragicomic laughter often sounds. Hegel, who saw in Molière's comedies only satirical ("prosaic") laughter, explains well what it is: "The prose is based here on the fact that individuals take their goals with extreme seriousness", they act "as objects of someone else's laughter" . In other words, Moliere's plays do not suggest a carnival beginning (when the ridiculed laughs along with the ridiculer), but a satirical one.

Despite all this, Lunacharsky noted the initially laid down opportunity to interpret the images of Molière in two ways. He referred to various conceptions of playing the role of "The Miser": both as a downcast man, Plyushkin, and as a good-natured old fool.

Molière's comic was expressed in appropriate ways. This includes worship (the use of the divine with laughter, the contrast of high and low), and eavesdropping, and the methods of “one instead of the other”, “recognition-not recognition”.

Timokhin calls "Satyricon", as well as Roman comedies, as using the most ancient technique of swearing, which involves mentioning the heroes of ancient mythology, gods, in the clownish context, as well as in clownish appeals to them. The mention of the sacred in an inappropriate context shows a discrepancy, creates a comic effect.

Molière, who, thanks to his education, had the opportunity to move in circles of "fine taste", perfectly felt how to turn the ancient reference - this "mandatory" element of high tragedy - so that the comedy would not lose the first persons of the state in the gases. In The Miser, Frosina describes a painting depicting the flight of Aeneas from Troy, and she very successfully manages to build the composition of her short story. In addition, the “focus” of her gaze is directed not at Aeneas, but at the old man Ankhiz (“... and this, like him, well, the weak old man Anchises, whom his son carries on his back”).

Eavesdropping is an attribution of the farcical genre. In "Tartuffe" we encounter him several times (Dorina overhears Orgon's conversation with his Daughter, Orgon hides under the table, where the whole truth about the hypocrite is given to his ears).

Another technique is "one instead of the other." In this case, the expected consequence of the audience turns out to be unexpected. The action acquires the character of a ridiculous confusion, loses its logical sequence, thereby causing laughter. In the conversation between Dorina and Orgon (Tartuffe), the same ironic construction is repeated 4 times. Dorina talks about the illnesses of the mistress, after which Orgon asks: “what about Tartuffe?”, To which he receives an answer about all the charms of the life of a dependent. "Poor fellow!" Orgon answers.

Syncretism of Molière's comedies. Molière's comedies suggest the syncretism of the comedy genre. In this new synthesis, features of a comedy of characters, a comedy of situations, as well as farcical elements are intertwined. The features of the comedy of characters are characteristic of his “high” comedies, while the second two belong mostly to one- and three-act comedies.

Although this does not mean that the lofty questions that the heroes of Molière's comedies asked by their very presence were resolved without resorting to farcical elements. For example, in Tartuffe, researchers highlight the features of all three types of comedy. The fact that the hypocrisy of Tartuffe underlies the plot is a sign of a comedy of characters. Other signs of her can be added: the stupidity of Mrs. Parnel in a conversation with Damis and Dorina (accuses the household of rudeness and disrespect for elders with their absolute cordiality), Dorina's chastity, etc. Farcical components of Tartuffe: eavesdropping, which has already been mentioned, are funny bickering and swearing, Orgon, who ends up under the table at the end of the play.

In "Don Juan", where the action also develops due to the bright character, there are many features of a sitcom. The overwhelming majority is associated with the unlucky Sganarelle (Ragotin imperceptibly puts dishes away from him and many others).

Various researchers point to a different kind of syncretism: they emphasize the high dignity of Molière's comedies, as having absorbed the best from numerous dramatic traditions. Boyadzhiev names among the sources a playwright, a well-read person who already in his youth translated the ancient poem "On the Nature of Things", Italian, Spanish and Roman dramas. Timokhn's research is largely devoted to comparing the comedy "The Miser" and various ancient plays, including Plautus, Terence, Menander. In his research, the scientist traces both Roman and Greek methods of constructing drama, which were embodied in the great Molière comedies. The material of the French folk theater must be understood as the key to Molière's work on his "high comedy".

The most important role of Moliere in the history of world drama is that, in defiance of the heroes of the classic theater, he brought new ones to the stage: heroes, exponents of certain morals. The heroes of the pre-Moliere tragedy are heroes in the truest sense of the word, in such a hero "as if there were no other elements except for the prevailing passion." Molière creates a hero endowed with a characteristic, speaking trait: hypocrisy and sensuality (Tartuffe), Don Giovanni, who is the embodiment of egoism and a thirst for personal pleasures, the Miser, about whom Pushkin's polemical expression "Miserly stingy, and only" is known. In this endowment of the hero with a character trait, one sees the undoubted dignity of the playwright's works, the originality of Moliere the comedian, and in the perspective of tradition, the impetus for the development of the psychological method (although, of course, it is historically wrong to talk about psychologism in Molière's comedies).

The path from folk farce to high comedy was not easy. It is known that if the creation of a tragedy can be based on a theoretical basis (the beginning of this tradition lies in Aristotle's Poetics), then comedy is created empirically, through trial and error. In the 17th century, Lope de Vega's work "The Art of Writing Comedy Today" appears. The very fact of it speaks of the problem posed about new ways of developing the genre of comedy.

It is noteworthy that Moliere staged tragedies for many years of his life, and even after the collapse of the Brilliant Theater, he did not change his chosen direction for a long time. Timokhin here sees Molière's original attitude in the search for a new form of comedy based on an ancient model. The features of classic poetics in Moliere are: this is the problem of feeling and duty (now negative characters are also endowed with it), as well as the ancient technique of “God from the machine”. Unexpected saviors are the king's officer in Tartuffe and Anselm in The Miser. In The Tradesman in the Nobility, the heroes introduced earlier acquire the status of saviors. In The Misanthrope, this technique does not take place, and therefore the characters really become pathetic.

Artistic features in Molière's Comedies.

compositional features. In Moliere's high comedy, the action usually consists of 5 acts ("Tartuffe", "Don Juan or the Stone Guest", "Misanthrope", "The Miser", "The Tradesman in the Nobility"), as in classical tragedy. It is built using traditional exposition, opening, climax and denouement, and their arrangement is also traditional. The plot and exposition fall on the first half of the action, the fourth act is crowned with a climax, and the fifth - with a denouement.

The hero appears only after it is known from the lips of others. Thus, Tartuffe begins with an argument between Madame Parnel and the family about the title character, which continues in the opposite, much more sober way, when Dorina describes the real state of affairs in the house. In Don Juan, the first act begins with a conversation between Sganarelle and Guzmán about Tartuffe. Before the appearance of Harpagon in The Miser, Valer speaks of the "terrible stinginess" of Eliza's father. Acquaintance with the hero from the words of others in the prologue of a comedy is a feature of Molière's method; the first act, during which the introduction of the title character unfolds, can be called an "extended monologue".

The ancient comedy in its prologue unfolds into the "future", while Molière unfolds it into the past. Timokhin writes about the fateful role of this turn in the work of Molière on the way from ancient comedy to the comedy of modern times, in which there is no return to the past or future, nor the introduction of heroes before their direct appearance on stage.

Timokhin also points to the reception of symmetry. In the "stingy" Harpagon calls both Valera and Jacques as judges, and the same speech constructions are used in calling the heroes.

Techniques for revealing images. In his comedies, Moliere reveals images in several ways: - through action (or its mention); - through speech, - with the help of additional means (speech characteristics, things, environment, author's commentary, etc.). Let's consider each of them.

In The Miser, Harpagon runs into the garden several times to check if his buried box is intact. Here Timokhin sees parallels with Greek tragedy, which also carried an important event (battle, murder, etc.) off the stage. Thus, Molière uses the ancient dramatic style in a reduced, comedic presentation. Other examples can be named: Tartuffe's voluptuousness is evident from his courtship of Elmira, the character of Don Giovanni grows out of numerous seductions. It can be said that characterization through action is one of the most sought-after means by Molière.

The very small deeds of the heroes serve to create character. For example, Harpagon extinguishes candles, thereby demonstrating his frugality, which turns into a real illness, stinginess. Saint Tartuffe grabs the hand of his benefactor's wife, feels her scarf, puts his hand on her knees. The simplicity of Ms. Parnel's morals is betrayed not only by her detailed conversation with the household in the first act of the drama, but also by the author's remark (“gives a slap in the face to Flepote”).

Characterization through speech (monologues and dialogues) has b about more ways to describe a character. The fundamental value of the dialogue is that it connects the hero with the environment, while the monologue allows him to find harmony with himself, assess his condition, and conduct self-reflection. Molière's comedies, as Timokhin writes, differing in their special harmony, combine both methods. It has already been said that in Molière's comedies, the initial dialogue enables the viewer to get acquainted with the title character. In the preface to Tartuffe, the author openly speaks of the expediency of such a technique: “I used all my abilities and made every effort to oppose the hypocrite I brought out to a truly pious person. To this end, I spent two actions to prepare the appearance of my wicked.”.

The monologues of Tartuffe and Don Giovanni have not only artistic, but also sociocultural significance. Moliere's types are casts of his time, which convey to the modern reader a certain understanding of the life of the past, presenting it, as it were, in a historical context. The 17th century, as a continuation of the Renaissance tendencies, is similar to the Middle Ages preceding it in that a person is thought of as a unity, but differs in the aspect that the search for unity is carried out in different ways. The Middle Ages understands a person as an object of church use, the two-level nature of a person is not a problematic issue. The Renaissance, having posed in the person of Petrarch the question of private desires of a person (“My Secret”), continues in the connection of the concepts of unity and uniqueness.

Tartuffe is a figure of his time no less than Don Giovanni. He begins his monologue with the phrase “No matter how pious I am, I am still a man.

And the power of your spell, believe me, is

That the mind yielded to the laws of nature.

Rejecting vanity for heavenly joy

All the same, madam, I am not an incorporeal angel.

Within five lines, the same idea varies three times: the incommensurable magnitude of God in relation to everything that exists gives a person the right not to strive for an unattainable ideal. This unties his hands and relieves him of all responsibilities. So brilliantly Moliere captured not only the character of the hypocrite, but also the man of the time, who no longer thinks through a hierarchical structure, but with the help of the concepts of naturalness and personality.

The figure of Don Juan is connected with yet another crisis of time. A person who thinks of himself personally acquires a structure and shape, and fields for self-realization open up for him - the social sphere. However, contradictions are immediately revealed, one of which is love. Back in the 12th century Bernard of Clermont proclaimed love as the meeting point of God and man, referring to the controversy surrounding the famous biblical statement "man is created in the image and likeness of God." Starting from the phrase “love as I have loved”, he forms the idea of ​​the “ladder of love”, at the head of which is God. But any other love, including the love of a man for a woman, is not recognized as something alien, on the contrary, it is a step on the path of ascent to the highest object of love - to God.

These installations are becoming important for troubadours. Love, as a bonding of a person into a whole, is expressed by the phrase "you are how you love." However, this concept had a flaw that sooner or later had to be revealed. Love as a private feeling came into conflict with the concept of duty, and therefore acquired an egoistic character. This contradiction was not resolved by the beginning of the 17th century.

Don Juan's monologue reveals the abyss that arose between a personal person, a person, and God, that is, the religious worldview of the Middle Ages. Here one can feel the connection with the materialistic ideas of Descartes, who understood God as the mechanical cause of the world. It is no coincidence that Don Juan says the famous “I believe, Sganarelle, that twice two makes four”, thereby reproducing the Cartesian view of number not only as some ideal way of knowing the world, but also as an innate idea.

It is interesting that it was precisely these features that Pushkin caught in Don Juan. Lotman, examining the "little tragedies" in detail, singles out the main tragic element in them as the decomposition of values ​​inherent in successive eras. Don Juan presents the crisis of the concept of personality, laid down by the Renaissance (“the night is lemon / And smells of laurel”).

Don Juan's understanding of the world obviously pushes Molière to create an episode of simultaneous explanation with both Maturina and Charlotte, from which Don Juan emerges victorious in the situation. The difficulty of the conditions in which the hero is placed is perceived by him as a challenge that must be accepted. Here, the polylogue already performs the function of characterizing the hero.

With the help of conversation, not only the main characters are characterized, but also the servants, along with the characters of the foreground. The meaning of such monologues, sometimes condensed into short lines, is essential to the course of the comedy. So, the title character of "Tartuffe" begins a conversation with his daughter, emphasizing her dignity ("you always meekly obeyed me"). Mariana answers her father: “Paternal love is dearer to me than all the blessings.” Frosina in "The Miser" speaks of her virtues as a matchmaker. Harpagon discusses whether it was right of him to bury the money in the garden.

Monologic remarks aside are also important. Harpagon says ("unnoticed by anyone, aside"): What's more! My son kisses the hands of his future stepmother, but she doesn’t really resist. Is there any deception here?

The absolute innovation of Molière was the introduction of the characterization of the character through his speech. He laid down this technique, important for the future realism. Molière managed to create a comedy of the high genre, which used vernacular (“Follow me, rubbish!" ("Tartuffe"), fool!(“Don Juan”), etc.) Rude answers in the form of turns of speech (“because of a trifle, but how boiled!” (“Tartuffe”),

Molière's absolute innovation was "rude", direct questions, when in the French theater special turns of speech were supposed for this. In Act 1 scene 5 of the "mean" Harpagon directly asks "what?". In act 2, scene 2 of Tartuffe, Dorina ironically declares: “Yes, well?”.

Molière's innovation is the description of the thing and the characterization of the hero through it. Such “Iconic” things include Valera’s costume, as well as a description of the things given by Garpogon to the borrower instead of money. Money and relationships built around it are a feature of the new time. They are stored in things, the choice of which can explain the interests of a person, his activities, etc. The very possibility of characterizing a person through the things that he accumulates appeared in modern times.

A thing ceases to be a value in its function, ceases to serve everyday life, turns into something external - a vessel for storing money. In the "stingy" this problem can be traced. Along with it, the problem of the uselessness of the thing arises. In the future, Balzac will paint a picture of Gobesque's rooms littered with bags of coffee, confectionery and other once-useful products.

Molière is a master of irony. To a long moralizing monologue by Cleanthe, Orgon replies: “Did you say everything?”. Generally speaking, the irony in Tartuffe is brought in for the most part by the inclusion of Dorina. The irony of Mr. Loyal turns into cynicism when he calls the document on eviction from the house of the whole family "a trifle."

"Don Juan" is riddled with irony, starting from the very first act, when Sganarelle, with a snuffbox in his hand, says: "no matter what Aristotle says, and all philosophy along with him, nothing in the world compares to tobacco." The speech of the protagonist is ironic, almost always a dispute with a servant takes on a playful, buffoonish color.

Conclusion. The originality of Molière's dramatic principles is a multifaceted phenomenon. In his dramatic work, Moliere - being bound by the obligations of court life - became the author of the Great High Comedy, which combined the principles of both folk farcical theater and classic tragedies; here the material of the Spanish and Italian dramas was artistically reworked. Molière, an actor and playwright, the author of a new language of comedy and new principles of its presentation, new ways of depicting reality, rethought the very role of comedy in the world literary process in accordance with the spirit of his time. In such tragedies of characters as "Don Juan", "Tartuffe", "The Miser" and a number of others, the most difficult issues related to the religious, cultural and philosophical quests and dead ends of their time are resolved.

Bibliography:

1. Michael Barro. Molière. His literary life and work.

2. Article by Alexei Veselovsky in the dictionary of Brockhausen and Euphron

3. Moliere. Article in the literary encyclopedia.

4. Vl. A. Lukov. Article in the encyclopedia French Literature. From the origins to the beginning of the modern period.

5. Boyadzhiev. Introductory article to the collected works of Molière in the Literary Monuments series.

6. Tsebrikova Maria Konstantinovna. Molière, his life and works, 1888

7. Veselovsky Alexander Nikolaevich. Sketches about Molière. Don Juan.

8. Timokhin, Vasily Vasilevich. Poetics of Molière's comedy "The Miser": the connection of comedy with the literature of ancient and modern times. 2003.

Tsebrikova Maria Konstantinovna Molière, his life and works, 1888, p. 41

Tsebrikova Maria Konstantinovna Molière, his life and works, 1888, p. 38

Timokhin, Vasily Vasilevich. Poetics of Molière's comedy "The Miser": the connection of comedy with the literature of ancient and modern times. 2003, p. 173

Introductory article to Molière's PSS in Literary Monuments, p. 7

Tsebrikova Maria Konstantinovna Molière, his life and works, 1888, p. 26

Timokhin, Vasily Vasilevich. Poetics of Molière's comedy "The Miser": the connection of comedy with the literature of ancient and modern times. 2003, p. 126

Combining the best traditions of the French. folk theater with advanced humanistic ideas inherited from the Renaissance, using the experience of classicism, Molière created a new a type of comedy addressed to the present, exposing the social deformities of the noble-bourgeois society. In plays that reflect "as in a mirror, the whole society," M. put forward new artistic principles: the truth of life, the individualization of characters with a bright typification of characters and the preservation of the stage form, which conveys the cheerful element of the square theater.

His comedies are directed against hypocrisy, hiding behind piety and ostentatious virtue, against the spiritual emptiness and arrogant cynicism of the aristocracy. The heroes of these comedies acquired a tremendous power of social typification.

The decisiveness, uncompromisingness of M. was especially clearly manifested in the characters of people from the people - active, intelligent, cheerful servants and maids, filled with contempt for idle aristocrats and self-satisfied bourgeois.

An essential feature of high comedy was tragic element , most clearly manifested in Misanthrope, which is sometimes called tragicomedy and even tragedy.

Molière's comedies touches on a wide range of problems of modern life Keywords: relations between fathers and children, upbringing, marriage and family, the moral state of society (hypocrisy, greed, vanity, etc.), class, religion, culture, science (medicine, philosophy), etc.

The method of stage construction of the main characters and the expression of social issues in the play becomes highlighting one trait, the dominant passion of the protagonist. The main conflict of the play, of course, is also "tied" to this passion.

The main feature of Moliere's characters - independence, activity, the ability to arrange one's happiness and one's destiny in the fight against the old and obsolete. Each of them has his own beliefs, his own system of views, which he defends before his opponent; the figure of the opponent is obligatory for classic comedy, because the action in it develops in the context of disputes and discussions.

Another feature of Moliere's characters is their ambiguity. Many of them have not one, but several qualities (Don Juan), or in the course of action there is a complication or change in their characters (Argon in Tartuffe, Georges Danden).

But everyone negative characters have one thing in common - breach of measure. Measure is the main principle of classical aesthetics. In the comedies of Molière, it is identical to common sense and naturalness (and hence morality). Their carriers often turn out to be representatives of the people (a maid in Tartuffe, a plebeian wife of Jourdain in the Philistine in the nobility). Showing the imperfection of people, Moliere implements the main principle of the comedy genre - harmonize the world and human relations through laughter .

Plot many comedies uncomplicated. But such an uncomplicated plot made it easier for Molière to provide laconic and truthful psychological characteristics. In the new comedy, the movement of the plot was no longer the result of the tricks and intricacies of the plot, but "followed from the behavior of the characters themselves, was determined by their characters." In the loud accusatory laughter of Molière, there were notes of indignation of the civilian masses.

Molière was extremely outraged by the position of the aristocrats and the clergy and "the first crushing blow to the noble-bourgeois society of Molièrenanes with his comedy" Tartuffe ". Using the example of Tartuffe, he showed with brilliant force that Christian morality enables a person to be completely irresponsible for his actions. A man deprived of his own will and completely left to the will of God. Comedy was banned, and all his life Molière continued to fight for it.

Important in the work of Moliere, according to Mr. Boyadzhiev, and the image of Don Juan. “In the image of Don Juan, Molière branded the hated type of dissolute and cynical aristocrat, a man who not only commits his atrocities with impunity, but also flaunts the fact that he, due to his nobility of origin, has the right not to reckon with the laws of morality, binding only on people simple rank.

Moliere was the only writer of the 17th century who contributed to the rapprochement of the bourgeoisie with the masses. He believed that this would improve the life of the people and limit the lawlessness of the clergy and absolutism.

1. Philosophical and moral-aesthetic aspects of J.-B. Molter ("Tartuffe", "Don Juan"). Synthesis of instructiveness and entertainment in the work of the playwright.

Moliere highlights not entertaining, but educational and satirical tasks. His comedies are characterized by sharp, scourging satire, intransigence with social evil and, at the same time, sparkling healthy humor and cheerfulness.

"Tartuffe"- the first comedy by Moliere, in which certain features of realism are found. In general, it, like his early plays, obeys the key rules and compositional techniques of the classical work; however, Moliere often departs from them (for example, in Tartuffe the rule of the unity of time is not fully observed - the plot includes a background story about the acquaintance of Orgon and the saint).

In Tartuffe, Molière castigates deception, personified by the protagonist, as well as stupidity and moral ignorance, represented by Orgon and Madame Pernel. Through deceit, Tartuffe tricks Orgon, and the latter falls for the bait due to his stupidity and naive nature. It is precisely the contradiction between the obvious and the apparent, between the mask and the face, that is the main source of comedy in the play, because thanks to it the deceiver and the simpleton make the viewer laugh heartily.

The first - because he made unsuccessful attempts to impersonate a completely different, diametrically opposed personality, and even chose a completely specific quality alien to him - that it can be more difficult for a zhuir and a libertine to play the role of an ascetic, zealous and chaste pilgrimage. The second is ridiculous because he absolutely does not see those things that would have caught the eye of any normal person, he admires and delights in extreme delight with what should cause, if not Homeric laughter, then, in any case, indignation. In Orgon, Moliere highlighted, before other aspects of character, the scarcity, narrow-mindedness, limitedness of a person seduced by the brilliance of rigoristic mysticism, drugged by extremist morality and philosophy, the main idea of ​​which is complete renunciation of the world and contempt for all earthly pleasures.

Wearing a mask is a property of Tartuffe's soul. Hypocrisy is not his only vice, but it is brought to the fore, and other negative features reinforce and emphasize this property. Molière succeeded in synthesizing a real concentrate of hypocrisy, heavily condensed almost to the absolute. In reality, this would be impossible.

Molière deservedly owns the laurels of the creator of the genre of "high comedy" - a comedy that claims not only to amuse and ridicule, but also to express high moral and ideological aspirations.

In conflicts, comedies of a new type clearly appear the main contradictions of reality. Now the characters are shown not only in their external, objectively comic essence, but with subjective experiences that sometimes have a truly dramatic character for them. This dramatic experience gives the negative characters of the new comedy life truthfulness, which is why the satirical denunciation acquires special power.

Highlighting one character trait. All of Moliere's "golden" comedies - "Tartuffe" (1664), "Don Juan" (1665), "The Misanthrope" (1666), "The Miser" (1668), "The Imaginary Sick" (1673) - are built on the basis of this method. It is noteworthy that even the titles of the plays just listed are either the names of the main characters or the names of their dominant passions.

With regard to the person of Tartuffe, the viewer (reader) from the very beginning of the action has no doubts: a hypocrite and a scoundrel. Moreover, these are not individual sins inherent in one way or another to each of us, but the very nature of the soul of the protagonist. Tartuffe appears on the stage only in the third act, but by that moment everyone already knows who exactly appears, who is the culprit of the electrified situation that the playwright skillfully writes out in the two previous acts.

So, before the release of Tartuffe, there are still two full actions, and the conflict in the Orgon family is already raging in full force. All clashes - between the owner's relatives and his mother, with him personally, and finally with Tartuffe himself - arise over the latter's hypocrisy. We can say that not even Tartuffe himself is the main character of the comedy, but his vice. And it is vice that brings its bearer to ruin, and not at all the attempts of more honest actors to bring the deceiver to clean water.

Molière's plays are diagnostic plays that he puts on human passions and vices. And as noted above, it is these passions that become the main characters of his works. If in Tartuffe this is hypocrisy, then in "Don Juan" such a dominant passion is undoubtedly pride. To see in him only a lustful male who does not know the restraint means to primitize. Lust by itself is not capable of leading to the rebellion against Heaven that we see in Don Juan.
Molière was able to see in his contemporary society a real force opposing the duplicity of Tartuffe and the cynicism of Don Juan. This force is the protesting Alceste, the hero of Molière's third great comedy, The Misanthrope, in which the comedian expressed his civic ideology with the greatest passion and completeness. The image of Alceste, being in its moral qualities the direct opposite of the images of Tartuffe and Don Juan, is completely similar to them in its functional role in the play, carrying the load of the plot engine. All conflicts unfold around the person of Alceste (and partly around his "female version" - Célimène), he is opposed to the "environment" in the same way as Tartuffe and Don Giovanni are opposed.

As already mentioned, the dominant passion of the protagonist is usually the cause of the denouement in a comedy (it doesn’t matter if it’s happy or vice versa).

19. German theater of the Enlightenment. G.-E. Lessing and theater. Directing and acting activities of F.L. Schroeder.

The main representative of the German theater is Gotthold LESSING - he is the theorist of the German theater, the creator of social drama, the author of the national comedy and educational tragedy. He realizes his humanistic convictions in the fight against absolutism on the theater stage of the Hamburg theater (the school of educational realism).

In 1777, the Monheim National Theater opens in Germany. The most important role in her work was played by the actor-director-playwright-Iffland. The actors of the Magheim theater were distinguished by their virtuoso technique, they accurately conveyed the character traits of the characters, the director paid attention to minor details, but not to the ideological content of the play.

The Weymour Theater is famous for the work of such playwrights as Goethe and Schiller. There were performances by such playwrights as Goethe, Shilir, Lesing and Walter. The foundations of directing art were laid. the foundations of realistic play were laid. Ensemble principle.

20. Italian theater of the Enlightenment: K. Goldoni. C. Gozzi.

Italian theater: the following types of stage performances were popular in the theater: comedy delarta, opera buff, serious opera, puppet theater. Enlightenment ideas in the Italian theater were realized in the work of two playwrights.

For Galdoni it is characteristic: the rejection of the masks of the tragedy of delarte in favor of the formation of the character of the disclosure of heroes, attempts to abandon improvisation in acting, writing a play as such, people of the 18th century appear in the work.

Gozzi, a playwright and theater figure, came to the defense of masks, which he set as his most important task - the resumption of improvisation. (king deer, princess turandot). Develops the genre of theatrical fairy tale.

22. The birth of the national theatrical tradition in the context of the culture of the 17th century.

Features of the Russian theater of the 17th century.

The theater will appear at the court of Alexei Mikhailovich. There is no exact information when the first performance appeared in Moscow. It is believed that after the invasion of the impostors, European comedies could be staged in the embassy houses. There are indications for the year 1664, according to the information of the English ambassador - the embassy house on the pokrovka. The second version is that the boyars could stage the plays. Atamon Medvedev could stage theater performances in his house in 1672.

Officially, the theater in Russian culture appears thanks to the efforts of two people. Alexei Mikhailovich, the second person will be Johann Gotward Gregory.

The first performances were associated with mythological and religious plots, the language of these performances was distinguished by literary and heavy weight (unlike folk, buffoons), at first the plays were in German, then in Russian. The first performances were extremely long and could reach up to 10 hours.

The tradition of the theater disappeared with the death of Alexei Mikhailovich and was revived with Peter 1.

23. The role of theater in the system of Petrine reforms and in the context of the process of secularization of Russian culture.

Russian theater in the era of the 18th century. The renewal of the theatrical tradition in the conditions of the 18th century took place under the influence of Peter the Great's reforms. In 1702, Peter creates a PUBLIC theater. It was originally planned that this theater would appear on Red Square. The theater was named "COMEDY STORAGE". The repertoire got formed by KUNSOM.

Peter wanted to make the theater a place that would become the most important platform for explaining his political and military reforms. The theater at that time was supposed to fulfill an ideological function, however, works of German dramaturgy were performed on the stage, they were not successful with the public. Peter demanded that the performances last no more than three acts, that they should not contain a love affair, that these plays should be neither too cheerful nor too sad. He wanted the plays to be in Russian, and therefore he offered service to actors from Poland.

Peter considered the theater a means of educating society. And therefore he expected that the theater would become a platform for the implementation of the so-called "triumphant comedies", which would be dedicated to military victories. However, his projects were not successful, were not accepted by the German troupe, as a result of this, the actors played what they could play, mainly the Germans were the actors, but later Russian actors began to appear, they began to be taught the basics of acting, which made it possible to stage productions in Russian language.

Peter's initiatives were not accepted by the audience either, the theater's occupancy was very low.

The reasons for the unpopularity of the theater are connected with a foreign troupe, foreign drama, isolation from everyday life, from everyday life. The songs were not very dynamic, very rhetorical, high rhetoric could coexist with rude humor. Even if a translation into Russian was carried out in the theater, this language was not alive, since there are a lot of Old Slavonic words from German vocabulary. The audience did not perceive well the actors' play, since the gestures of facial expressions and morals were also poorly adapted to Russian life.

1706 - the comedy chromina was closed, the actors were dismissed, despite all the efforts of the successor of the kunst, oto furst. All the scenery and costumes were transferred to the theater of Peter's sister, NAtelya Alekseevna. In 1708, they tried to dismantle Khramina, it was dismantled up to 35.

In addition to Khramina, the following will be built: Amusement Palace of the boyar Miloslavsky, - a wooden theater was opened in the village of Pereobrazhensky. Theater in Lefort's house.

Unlike the theater of Alexei Mikhailovich, which was of a more elitist nature, the theater during the time of Peter the Great was more accessible and the audience was formed from among the city people.

However, after the death of Peter 1, the theater did not develop.

24. Theater in the context of the cultural life of Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Fortress theater as a phenomenon of Russian culture.

The theater under the Empress ANNA IUANOVNA, since Catherine the First and Peter 2 were indifferent to theatrical art, they rarely staged theatrical scenes at court. There was a school theater at theological educational institutions.

Anna ionovna loved roundabouts and performances, the performances were of a comic nature. Anna was very fond of German comedies, in which the actors at the end have to beat each other. In addition to German troupes, Italian opera troupes come to Russia at this time. During her reign, work was underway to build a permanent theater in the palace. The audience at this time is the Petersburg nobility.

Theater in the time of Elizabeth Petrovna. Along with foreign troupes, theatrical performances will be given in the gentry cadet corps. It was here that in 1749 the tragedy of Sumorokov “KHOREF” would be staged for the first time, the codet corps trained the elite of Russian nobles, foreign languages, literature were studied here, dances were prepared for the future diplomatic service. A circle of lovers of literature was created for students, led by Sumorokov. Theater became part of the work of this circle. Theatrical productions were considered part of the educational program and were considered a kind of entertainment. In this gentry corps, not only children of the nobility studied, but also people from other social strata. In this institution, the state takes on the mission of paying for the education of gifted people.

In addition to the capital cities, by the end of the 40s and the beginning of the 50s, entertainment centers began to concentrate in provincial cities, the reasons for this phenomenon are related to the fact that during this period the merchants begin to have financial independence. Merchants get acquainted with the achievements of Western European culture. Being one. from the most mobile strata of Russian society. Russian merchant cities are getting richer, which becomes the most important condition for the organization of theatrical business. The center of such theatricality is the Yaroslavl province. It is in Yaroslavl that a local amateur theater will be opened under the direction of Fyodor Volkov, which will later be transferred to St. Petersburg in 1752, and this will become a condition for issuing a decree on the establishment of a Russian theater in St. Petersburg, which will also include the Yaroslavl troupe as actors. The decree will arise in 1756.

Theater of Catherine 2. The theater perceived as a necessary condition for the education and enlightenment of the people, three court troupes would operate in it: the Italian Oprah troupe, the ballet troupe, and the Russian drama troupe.

For the first time, educational theaters for the paid showing of plays begin. She will carry out a series of reforms related to the freedom of enterprise for the purpose of entertainment.

In 1757, an Italian opera was opened in Moscow, and in 1758, an imperial theater was opened. Performances were given, Bolkonsky.

Castle theatres.

Fortress theaters are a unique phenomenon in the history of world culture, they will receive special development at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, the reasons for the formation of this phenomenon are due to the fact that wealthy nobles began to shape their life with an eye to the imperial court, having a European education, the nobles began to gather theater troupes for entertainment of guests, from among their own serfs, since foreign troupes were expensive. Moscow, Yaroslavl became the centers of development of the serf theater, the most famous were the corpses of the Muromskys, the Sheremetevs. Galitsin.

The fortress theater developed as a synthetic, musical and dramatic performance with opera and ballet inserts. Such performances required special training of the actors, they taught languages, manners, choreography, diction and acting skills. Among the most famous actresses of the serf theater: Zhemchugova, Shilokova-garnet, Izumrudova.

The so-called cane system was staged very seriously, this was especially characteristic of troupes in which there were often ballet performances.

The fortress theater will stimulate the emergence of Russian dramaturgy. In the fortress theater was very developed shorthand art.

Western European theatrical practice (drama, Western teachers) had a very serious influence on the serf theater, while the formation of national features in the serf theater makes this phenomenon very important from the point of view of the Western European theater.

26. Reform of the Western European theater at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The phenomenon of "new drama".

The turn of the 20th century in the history of Western European literature is marked by a powerful rise in dramatic art. The contemporaries called the dramaturgy of this period the "new drama", emphasizing the radical nature of the changes that had taken place in it.

The "New Drama" arose in the atmosphere of the cult of science, caused by the unusually rapid development of natural science, philosophy and psychology, and, discovering new areas of life, absorbed the spirit of the omnipotent and all-penetrating scientific analysis. She perceived a wide variety of artistic phenomena, was influenced by various ideological and stylistic trends and literary schools, from naturalism to symbolism. The "new drama" appeared during the reign of "well-made", but far from life plays, and from the very beginning tried to draw attention to its most burning, burning problems. Ibsen, Bjornson, Strindberg, Zola, Hauptmann, Shaw, Hamsun, Maeterlinck and other outstanding writers stood at the origins of the new drama, each of whom made a unique contribution to its development. In the historical and literary perspective, the “new drama”, which served as a radical restructuring of the dramaturgy of the 19th century, marked the beginning of the dramaturgy of the 20th century.

Representatives of the "new drama" appeal to important socio-social and philosophical problems ; they endure accent from external action and event drama to strengthen psychologism, create subtext and multi-valued symbolism .

According to Eric Bentley, “one important feature is inherent in the heroes of Ibsen and Chekhov: they all carry in themselves and, as it were, spread around them a sense of doom, wider than a sense of personal destiny. Since the stamp of doom in their plays is marked by the whole way of culture, both of them act as social dramatists in the broadest sense of the term. Bred by them characters are typical of their society and their era". But still to the center of their works, Chekhov, Ibsen, Strindberg staged not a catastrophic event, but outwardly eventless, everyday life with its imperceptible demands, with its characteristic process of constant and irreversible change. This trend was especially clearly expressed in Chekhov's dramaturgy, where instead of the development of dramatic action established by the Renaissance drama, there is an even narrative course of life, without ups and downs, without a definite beginning and end. Even the death of heroes or attempted death is not essential to the resolution of the dramatic conflict, since the main content of the "new drama" becomes not an external action, but a peculiar "lyrical plot", the movement of the soul of the characters, not an event but being , not the relationship of people with each other, but their relationship with reality.
External conflict in "new drama" initially undecidable . The tragedy of everyday existence discovered by her is not so much the driving force of the drama, but the background of the unfolding action, which determines the tragic pathos of the work. Genuine rod dramatic actions becomes internal conflict . It can also be unresolvable within the framework of the play due to external, fatally subjugating circumstances. Therefore, the hero, not finding support in the present, is looking for moral guidelines in an invariably beautiful past or in an indefinite bright future. Only then does he feel some kind of spiritual fulfillment, acquires peace of mind.

Common to "new drama" it could be considered symbol concept , with the help of which the artist sought to supplement the depicted, reveal the invisible meaning of phenomena and, as it were, continue reality with hints of its deep meaning. "In the desire to put the symbol in the place of a specific image, no doubt, the reaction against naturalistic earthiness, factographicity has affected." Understood in the broadest sense of the word, most often the symbol acted as an image , linking two worlds : private, everyday, single and universal, cosmic, eternity. The symbol becomes a "code of reality", necessary to "put the idea into a visual form."

In "new drama" changing the idea of ​​the presence of the author in the text of the play and, as a result, in its stage incarnation. The subject-object organization becomes the cornerstone. These changes found their expression in the system of remarks, which now no longer play a purely auxiliary role, but are called upon to express the mood, feeling, designate the lyrical leitmotif of the drama, its emotional background, unite the nature and circumstances of the biography of the characters, and sometimes the author himself. They are addressed not so much to the director as to the viewer and reader. They may contain the author's assessment of what is happening.

going on change in "new drama" and in the structure of dramatic dialogue . The replicas of the heroes lose their generic quality of being a word-action, growing into lyrical monologues, declaring the views of the heroes, telling about their past, revealing hopes for the future. At the same time, the concept of the individual speech of the characters becomes conditional. The stage role determines not so much the personal qualities of the characters, their socio-psychological or emotional differences, but the generality, the equality of their position, state of mind. The heroes of the "new drama" strive to pour out their thoughts and experiences in a multitude of monologues.
The very concept of "psychologism" in the "new drama" acquires a conditional concept. However, this does not mean the exclusion of characters from the sphere of interests of artists of this direction. "Character and Action in Ibsen's plays are so well coordinated that the question of the priority of one or the other loses all meaning. The heroes of Ibsen's plays have not only character, but also fate. Character has never been fate in itself. The word "fate" has always meant external force in relation to people that fell upon them, "that force that, living outside of us, does justice" or, conversely, injustice.

Chekhov and Ibsen developed " new character portrayal method , which can be called " biographical "Now the character acquires a life story, and if the playwright cannot present it in one monologue, he reports information about the character's past life in pieces here and there, so that the reader or viewer can subsequently put them together. This " the biographical nature of the characters, along with the introduction to the plays - under the influence of the novel - of capacious realistic details, apparently, is the most peculiar feature of the "new drama" in terms of creating characters. The losses that dramaturgy incurs in depicting a character are made up for by a concrete reproduction of the dynamics of life "

The main trend of the "new drama" is in its striving for a reliable image, a truthful display of the inner world, social and everyday features of the life of the characters and the environment. The exact color of the place and time of the action is its characteristic feature and an important condition for the stage incarnation.

"New Drama" stimulated the discovery new principles of performing arts based on the requirement of a truthful, artistically reliable reproduction of what is happening. Thanks to the "new drama" and its stage embodiment in theatrical aesthetics, concept of the fourth wall ”, when the actor, who is on stage, as if not taking into account the presence of the viewer, according to K.S. Stanislavsky, “must stop acting and start living the life of the play, becoming its protagonist”, and the audience, in turn, believing in this illusion of plausibility, observe with excitement the easily recognizable life of the characters in the play.

"New Drama" developed genres of social, psychological and intellectual "drama of ideas" , which turned out to be unusually productive in the dramaturgy of the 20th century. Without the "new drama" it is impossible to imagine the emergence of either expressionist or existentialist drama, or Brecht's epic theater, or the French "anti-drama". And although more than a century separates us from the birth of the “new drama”, it has not lost its relevance, special depth, artistic novelty and freshness so far.

27. Reform of the Russian theater at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

At the beginning of the century, the Russian theater was undergoing its renewal.

The most important event in the theatrical life of the country was opening of the Art Theater in Moscow (1898), founded by K.S. Stanislavsky and V.N. Nemirovich-Danchenko. Moscow Artistic the theater carried out a reform covering all aspects of theatrical life - repertoire, directing, acting, organization of theatrical life; here, for the first time in history, the methodology of the creative process was created. The core of the troupe consisted of pupils of the drama department of the Music and Drama School of the Moscow Philharmonic Society (O. L. Knipper, I. M. Moskvin, V. E. Meyerhold), where acting was taught by V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, and participants in amateur performances directed by K. S. Stanislavsky "Society of Art and Literature" (M. P. Lilina, M. F. Andreeva, V. V. Luzhsky, A. R. Artyom). Later, the troupe included V. I. Kachalov, L. M. Leonidov.

The first performance Moscow Art Theater became " Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich" based on the play by A. K. Tolstoy; however, the true birth of the new theater is associated with the dramaturgy of A.P. Chekhov and M. Gorky. The subtle atmosphere of Chekhov's lyricism, soft humor, melancholy and hope was found in the performances of The Seagull (1898), Uncle Vanya (1899), Three Sisters (1901), The Cherry Orchard and Ivanov (both in 1904 ). Having understood the truth of life and poetry, the innovative essence of Chekhov's dramaturgy, Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko found a special manner of its performance, discovered new methods of revealing the spiritual world of modern man. In 1902, Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko staged M. Gorky's plays The Petty Bourgeoises and At the Bottom, imbued with a premonition of imminent revolutionary events. In the work on the works of Chekhov and Gorky, a new type of actor , subtly conveying the features of the psychology of the hero, principles of directing , seeking an ensemble cast, creating a mood, a general atmosphere of action, a decorative solution (artist V. A. Simov), were scenic means of conveying the so-called subtext hidden in ordinary words have been developed (internal content). For the first time in the world of performing arts, the Moscow Art Theater raised the meaning of the director - creative and ideological interpreter of the play.

During the years of the defeat of the Revolution of 1905-07 and the spread of various decadent trends, the Moscow Art Theater was briefly carried away by searches in the field of symbolist theater (Andreev’s Life of a Man and Hamsun’s Drama of Life, 1907). After that, the theater turned to the classical repertoire, but staged in an innovative directorial manner: Griboedov's Woe from Wit (1906), Gogol's The Inspector General (1908), Turgenev's A Month in the Country (1909), Enough Simplicity for Every Wise Man Ostrovsky (1910), "The Brothers Karamazov" after Dostoevsky (1910), "Hamlet" by Shakespeare, "Reluctant Marriage" and "Imaginary Sick" by Molière (both in 1913).

28. Innovation of A. P. Chekhov's dramaturgy and its world significance.

Chekhov's dramas permeate an atmosphere of unhappiness . In them no happy people . Their heroes, as a rule, are not lucky either in big or small: they all turn out to be failures in one way or another. In The Seagull, for example, there are five stories of unsuccessful love, in The Cherry Orchard, Epikhodov with his misfortunes is the personification of the general inconsistency of life, from which all heroes suffer.

General trouble is getting worse and worse a feeling of total loneliness . Deaf Firs in The Cherry Orchard is a symbolic figure in this sense. Appearing for the first time before the audience in an old livery and in a tall hat, he walks across the stage, talking to himself, but not a single word can be made out. Lyubov Andreevna tells him: "I'm so glad you're still alive," and Firs replies: "The day before yesterday." In essence, this dialogue is a rough model of communication between all the characters in Chekhov's drama. Dunyasha in The Cherry Orchard shares with Anya, who arrived from Paris, a joyful event: “After the Saint, the clerk Epikhodov made me an offer,” Anya answered: “I lost all the hairpins.” In the dramas of Chekhov reigns a special atmosphere of deafness - psychological deafness . People are too absorbed in themselves, their own affairs, their own troubles and failures, and therefore they do not hear each other well. Communication between them hardly turns into a dialogue. With mutual interest and goodwill, they cannot get through to each other in any way, since they “talk to themselves and for themselves” more.

Chekhov has a special feeling drama of life . Evil in his plays, as it were, is crushed, penetrating into everyday life, dissolving into everyday life. Therefore, in Chekhov it is very difficult to find an obvious culprit, a specific source of human failures. The frank and direct bearer of social evil is absent in his dramas . There is a feeling that in a mess of relationships between people is to some extent guilty each hero individually and all together . This means that evil is hidden in the very foundations of the life of society, in its very composition. Life in the forms in which it exists now, as it were, cancels itself, casting a shadow of doom and inferiority on all people. Therefore, in Chekhov's plays, conflicts are muted, missing adopted in classical drama a clear division of heroes into positive and negative .

Peculiarities of the "new drama" poetics. First of all, Chekhov destroys "through action" , a key event that organizes the plot unity of the classical drama. However, the drama does not fall apart, but is assembled on the basis of a different, internal unity. The fates of the characters, with all their differences, with all their plot independence, “rhyme”, echo each other and merge into a common “orchestral sound”. From many different, parallel developing lives, from the many voices of various heroes, a single “choral fate” grows, a common mood is formed for everyone. That is why they often talk about the "polyphony" of Chekhov's dramas and even call them "social fugues", drawing an analogy with the musical form, where from two to four musical themes, melodies sound and develop simultaneously.

With the disappearance of through action in Chekhov's plays classical one-heroism is also eliminated, the concentration of the dramatic plot around the main, leading character. The usual division of heroes into positive and negative, main and secondary is destroyed, each leads his own part, and the whole, as in a choir without a soloist, is born in the consonance of many equal voices and echoes.

Chekhov comes in his plays to a new revelation of the human character. In the classical drama, the hero revealed himself in deeds and actions aimed at achieving the goal. Therefore, the classical drama was forced, according to Belinsky, to always rush, and the delay in the action entailed ambiguity, lack of clarity of characters, turned into an anti-artistic fact.

Chekhov opened up new possibilities for portraying character in drama. It is revealed not in the struggle to achieve the goal, but in the experience of the contradictions of being. The pathos of action is replaced by the pathos of reflection. Unknown to classical drama, Chekhov's "according to

Classical drama is a drama that developed in Europe during the Baroque era and is based on the poetics of ancient tragedy, which is interpreted in a peculiar way. The first experiences of classical French tragedy appear in the middle of the 16th century. The school of young playwrights and theoreticians, known as the Pleiades, planted national art on French soil in the forms of ancient tragedy and comedy. Tragedy is defined by them as a work in which there are "choirs, dreams, ghosts, gods, moral maxims, lengthy remarks, short answers, a rare historical or pathetic event, an unfortunate denouement, high style, poetry, time not exceeding one day."

Here we see such an atavism as a chorus, but in further development it quickly disappears, but two other unities are added to the unity of time. Early samples of classical French tragedy are given by Jodel, who, with his “Captured Cleopatra”, as Ronsard aptly put it, “was the first to make Greek tragedy sound French”, Grevin, who opposed any reconciliation with the mystery repertoire, Garnier, Hardy de Vio, Franche-Comte , Meret, Montchretien and others.

The most prominent representatives of classical tragedy in the forms described above are the playwrights Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) and Jean Racine (1639-1699). The early Corneille in his Sid (1636) does not yet observe unity and builds a tragedy according to a scenario reminiscent of mysteries. It is characteristic that in its content this tragedy still retains elements of feudal (and not only absolutist-noble) ideology.

The play was a huge success, against which the French Academy armed itself, protesting against it at the instigation of the all-powerful Cardinal Richelieu. In the Academy's attack on "The Sid," the requirements for a classic tragedy were very clearly articulated. The Sid was followed by other tragedies of Corneille: Horace, Cinna, Polyeuct, Pompey, Rodogune, which for a long time strengthened the glory of French tragedy along with the works of Racine.

The significance of Moliere in the history of world drama is truly enormous.

Bringing together in his work the best traditions of the French folk theater with the advanced ideas of humanism, Moliere created a new kind of drama - "high comedy", a genre that for its time was a decisive step towards realism.

After Catholic reaction destroyed the great theater of the Italian and Spanish Renaissance, and the puritanical English revolution razed the theaters of London to the ground and anathematized Shakespeare, Molière again raised the banner of humanism and returned the European theater to nationality and ideology.

He boldly charted the path for all subsequent development of drama and not only bridged with his work two great cultural epochs - the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, but also anticipated many of the fundamental principles of critical realism. Molière's strength lies in his direct appeal to his own modernity, in his merciless exposure of its social deformities, in the deep disclosure of the main contradictions of the time in dramatic conflicts, in the creation of vivid satirical types that embody the main vices of contemporary noble-bourgeois society.

• 1.XVII century as an independent stage in the development of European literatures. main literary trends. Aesthetics of French Classicism. "Poetic Art" n. bualo
• 2. Italian and Spanish Baroque Literature. Lyrics of Marino and Gongora. baroque theorists.
• 3. Genre features of the picaresque novel. "The Life Story of a Rogue named Don Pablos" by Quevedo.
• 4. Calderon in the history of the Spanish national drama. Religious-philosophical play "Life is a dream"
• 5. German literature of the 17th century. Martin Opitz and Andreas Gryphius. Grimmelshausen's novel Simplicius Simplicissimus.
• 6. English literature of the 17th century. John Donn. Milton's work. Milton's "Paradise Lost" as a religious and philosophical epic. Image of Satan.
• 7. Theater of French classicism. Two stages in the development of classic tragedy. Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine.
• 8. Classical type of conflict and its resolution in the tragedy “Sid” by Corneille.
• 9. The situation of internal discord in the tragedy of Corneille "Horace".
• 10. Arguments of reason and egoism of passions in Racine's tragedy "Andromache".
• 11. Religious and philosophical idea of ​​human sinfulness in Racine's tragedy "Phaedra".
• 12. Creativity of Molière.
• 13. Molière's comedy "Tartuffe". Principles of character creation.
• 14. The image of Don Juan in world literature and in Molière's comedy.
• 15. Misanthrope" by Moliere as an example of the "high comedy" of classicism.
• 16. The Age of Enlightenment in the history of European literatures. The dispute about man in the English enlightenment novel.
• 17. "The Life and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe" by D. Defoe as a philosophical parable about a person
• 18. Genre travel in the literature of the XVIII century. "Gulliver's Travels" by J. Swift and "Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy" by Lawrence Stern.
• 19. Creativity p. Richardson and Mr. Fielding. "The Story of Tom Jones, the Foundling" by Henry Fielding as a "comic epic".
• 20. Artistic discoveries and literary innovation by Lawrence Stern. The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman" by L. Stern as an "anti-novel".
• 21. Roman in Western European literatures of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Traditions of the picaresque and psychological novel in Prevost's "The History of the Cavalier de Grillaud and Manon Lescaut".
• 22. Montesquieu and Voltaire in the history of French literature.
• 23. Aesthetic views and creativity of Denis Diderot. "Meschanskaya drama". The story "The Nun" as a work of educational realism.
• 24. Genre of a philosophical story in French literature of the 18th century. "Candide" and "Innocent" Voltaire. Rameau's Nephew by Denis Diderot.
• 26. "The era of sensitivity" in the history of European literature and a new hero in the novels of l. Stern, f.-f. Rousseau and Goethe. New forms of perception of nature in the literature of sentimentalism.
• 27. German literature of the XVIII century. Aesthetics and dramaturgy of Lessing. "Emilia Galotti".
• 28. Drama by Schiller. "Robbers" and "Deceit and Love".
• 29. Literary movement "Sturm and Drang". Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther. Social and psychological origins of Werther's tragedy.
• 30. Goethe's tragedy "Faust". Philosophical problems.
• 22. Montesquieu and Voltaire in French literature.
• 26. "The era of sensitivity" in the history of European literature and a new hero in the novels of Stern, Rousseau, Goethe. New methods of perception of nature in sentimentalism.
• Lawrence Sterne (1713 - 1768).
• 20. Artistic discoveries and literary innovation by Lawrence Sterne. The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman" by L. Stern as an "anti-novel".

15. Misanthrope" by Moliere as an example of the "high comedy" of classicism.

\"The Misanthrope\" is a serious comedy by Moliere, on which he worked long and carefully (1664-1666).

The action of the play took place in Paris. The young man Alsest was extremely vulnerable to any manifestations of hypocrisy, servility and falsehood. He accused his friend Filint of false flattery towards other people. Allegedly, Filinta, when meeting a person, showed her his love and affection, and as soon as she left , he hardly remembered her name or something Alsestov did not like such insincerity.

I want sincerity so that not a single word

did not fly out of the mouth, as it is from the soul.

Philint used to live according to the laws that dominated the world of that time: to respond to the affection of others, despite the true attitude towards a person.

For Alsest, this is unnatural. He could not calmly endure the way people are used to flattering conversations, compliments, behind which the deepest things are actually hidden. In his opinion, it was impossible to respect and love everyone. This is pure fawning and farars.

there is no respect on earth without predominance

Whoever respects everyone does not know that respect ...

You have servility - like a retail product

I do not need a common friend as a friend.

In response, Philint noted that they occupied a certain place in high society, and therefore had to obey its laws and customs.

Alsest preached life without falsehood, in truth, to feel with his heart and go only at his call, never to hide his feelings under a mask.

Philint is a decent person. He somewhat agreed with Alsest's point of view. However, not always - as, for example, even in the case when sometimes it was better and more correct to keep silent and restrain one's opinion.

It happens - I ask you not to take it in anger

When reasonable, who sweat opinion.

Filint forced Alsest to reflect on the fact that openness and truthfulness were not always beneficial.

However, the latter cannot be convinced. A conflict has ripened in his soul - he is already powerless to endure lies, deceit and betrayal around him.

Alsest is a real misanthrope, he most of all began to hate the human race.

Philint is amazed: according to Alsest, among his contemporaries there was not a single person who would meet all the requirements of his friend in terms of morality and virtuous.

Filint advises Alsestovi to be more moderate...

And you look at human nature.

Although we will find flaws and sins in it

But how do we have to live among people

So you have to take precautions in everything.

And morality should not be taken too sincerely.

The true mind tells us prudence mother

After all, even wisdom should not be fooled.

Alsestive friend accepts people for who they are.

All these sins, you and I know

The human race is also specific

And be offended or angry with me

What injected so much evil, deceit, lies

It's amazing than no meat kite

Why a cruel wolf, and a monkey is cunning and tasty.

Filint finally realized that a friend could not be changed. However, it became strange for him: how such truth-seekers managed to find a girl, any heart.

In the place of Alsesta, he did not fix his eyes on Célimène. He prefers the moderate, decent and sensible Arsinoe and Eliante Célimène - a typical representative of her time, boastful, selfish, proud, sharp-tongued, etc. Did Alsest, who criticized the world with such fervor, did not see the shortcomings and vices of his beloved?

Alsest loved the young widow, knew her shortcomings as well as others, but he was unbearable to compete with them.

He agreed with Philint's opinion that he should have connected his fate with Eliantu, and love, unfortunately, never worked with the mind.

The conversation between two friends was interrupted by the arrival of Orontes. He discovered Alsest's commitment, but the latter did not even pay attention to him. Orontes asks him, despite his education and objectivity, to be a fair judge of his literary experiments in the sonnet genre. Alsest refused ("I have a big sin: I am too sincere in my sentences \"), however, Orontes insisted. After reading Alsest, not voicing ayucha and not at all embarrassed, he expressed his opinion about the sonnet. She is completely negative and so naked that she could offend even a person, to caustic criticism.

Oronte did not agree with the opinion of the censor. He is convinced that his sonnet, although it was not a completely perfect work, was not quite a model of mediocrity. Not wanting to have Alsesta as an enemy to himself, Or Ronto, on a good note, having parted with him, Philinte had a presentiment of what could lead to this excessive frankness Alceste Orontes was not one of those people who so easily forgave images.

Alsest seeks to change the inner Célimène, otherwise they could never be together.

He accused her of attracting too many admirers to herself, and it was time to decide. She was affectionate with everyone, and it’s not worth giving hope to everyone. He confesses his feelings to her, but she was surprised that the young man did this in a strange way:

It's true: you have chosen a new way for yourself.

And on earth, perhaps, no one was found

Whoever proved his fell in quarrels and squabbles.

So, Alsest is \"a young man in love with Célimène \", as he is described in the list of characters. His name is an artificial formation typical of literature of the 17th century, echoed the Greek name of Alcesta (Alcestis, wife of Admet who gave his life for his sake). salvation from death) Greek \"Alkey \" - courage, bravery, courage, power, struggle,\"Alkeys \" - strong, powerful.

However, the action of the work unfolded in Paris, the text mentioned the court for the consideration of cases in the image of the nobility and military officials (formed in 1651), a hint of intrigue in connection with "Tartuffe" and other details that noted that Alsest was a contemporary and compatriot M.

time, this image is intended to embody charity, honesty, adherence to principles, but brought to the limit, such that it turned into a disadvantage that prevented a person from establishing ties with society and turned its owner into a misanthrope.

The hero's statements about people were not as sharp as the attacks of Se-Limen, Arsinoe, and other participants in the "school of recklessness".

The name of the comedy \"Misanthrope\" was misleading: Alsest, capable of passionate love, was less of a misanthrope compared to Célimène, who does not love anyone at all. had valid motives.

The following is indicative: if the names of Tartuffe or Harpagon received signs of names in French, then the name of Alsesta, on the contrary: the concept of \"misanthrope\" replaced his personal name, but it changed its meaning - it became a symbol not of people's hatred, but of directness, honesty, sincerity .

Moliere, thus, developed a system of images and a plot of the comedy so that not Alsest was drawn to society, but society to him. The playwright urged the viewer to think about what made the beautiful and young Sel Limen, the sane Eliant, the hypocritical Arsinoe look for his love, but for the smart Philinte and the precise Orontes - precisely his friendship? kov, he was not known at court, he is not a frequent visitor to exquisite salons, he is not engaged in politics, science or some kind of art. Without a doubt, he attracted attention to what others lack. ; / There is some kind of heroism in it \" Sincerity was the dominant part of Alsest's character. The society wanted to depersonalize him, make him like the others, at the same time it envies the extraordinary moral stability of this human being.